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BOOK     139.SP97    c.  1 
SPURSHEIM    #    PHILOSOPHICAL 
CATFCHISM    OF    NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN 


3    T1S3    0D0D2fl3T    1 


5S 


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SPI 
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PHILOSOPHICAL  CATECHISM 


i^0 


NATURAL    LAWS    OP    MAN. 


OF    THE    UNIVERSITIES    OF    VIENNA   AND    PARIS,    AND 

LICENTIATE  OF  THE  ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF 

PHYSICIANS  IN  LONDON. 


SECOND    EDITION, IMPROVED. 


B  o  s  T  o  N : 

MARSH,      C  A  P  E  N      AND      LYON. 

1832. 


Entered  according  to  the  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year 
1832,  by  Marsh,  Capen  and  Lyon,  in  the  Clerk's  office  of 
the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


PREFACE. 


^^      Men  have  long  been  treated  as  children ;  they 
j^^  have  been  taught  that  if^norance  and    credulity 
are  virtues,  and  that  fear  is  wisdom, and  that  they 
may  glorify  God  by  flattery  rather  than  by  mor- 
al   excellency.     Arbitrary    regulations    of  all 

^   sorts  have  been  imposed  upon  them,  and   blind 

^   and  unconditional  obedience  to  these  required. 

"-^  Words  too  often  satisfy  them,  and  the  less  they 
understand,  the  more  do  they  generally  deem  it 
incumbent  on  them  to  admire;  sensual  grati- 
fications have  proved  sufficient  inducements  for 
them  willingly  to  follow  the  good  pleasure  of 
their  masters.  Even  religion,  in  one  or  an- 
other form,  has  been  an    engine  to   crush   the 

i!>  human  mind.  This  was,  at  all  times  more  or 
less  the  deplorable  condition  of  mankind.  Those 
who  even  in  our  days  make  exception,  are  com- 
paratively few  in  number. 

The    following  pages    are    writen    with    a 
^view    to    ascertain    whether   or   not    the   hu- 

V)0  man  kind  be  susceptible  of  better   treatment, 


IV  PREFACE. 

and  whether  or  not  the  arbitrary  legislation  of 
man,  that  has  hitherto  been,  and  must  always 
be,  but  temporary,  and  of  limited  application, 
might  not  advantageously  give  place  to  a  code 
of  IMMUTABLE  LAWS  which,  established  by  the 
Creator,  and  not  adapted  to  a  single  family,  to 
a  particular  nation,  to  an  age,  but  to  all  man- 
kind, and  to  all  times,  are  calculated  to  endure 
as  long  as  the  species  remains. 

It  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  demonstrate 
the  existence  of  such  laws,  although  it  may 
happen  that  governments  and  nations  them- 
selves will  oppose  their  adoption.  But  this  op- 
position will  not  annihilate  the  reality  of  the 
NATURAL  CODE,  and  communities  will  certainly 
feel  disposed  to  receive,  will  even  demand  it,  in 
proportion  as  they  become  enlightened;  they 
will  also  be  worthy  of  it  in  proportion  as  they 
become  virtuous. 

I  shall  consider  my  subject  under  the  form 
of  question  and  answer,  the  better  to  fix  the  at- 
tention of  my  reader.  My  sole  intention  is  to 
contribute  to  the  amelioration  of  man;  that  is 
to  say,  to  combat  his  ignorance  and  his  immoral- 
ity, and  to  point  out  the  means  of  makino-  him 
better  and  happier,  by  insisting  particularly  on 


PREFACE.  V 

the  necessity  of  his  fulfilling  the  laws  of  his 
Creator. 

Some  may  be  of  opinion  that  I  might  here 
have  avoided  the  introduction  of  any  question 
upon  religion  and  morality.  I,  however,  think 
it  incumbent  on  a  philosopher  to  examine  all 
that  enters  into  the  nature  of  man,  and  to  'hold 
fast  thai  which  is  good.'  Now  man  being  posi- 
tively endowed  with  moral  and  religious  feel- 
ings, as  well  as  with  vegetative  functions  and 
intellectual  faculties,  it  was  my  business  to 
speak  of  the  former  as  well  as  of  the  latter.  Nay, 
true  relioion  is  central  truth,  and  all  know- 
ledge,  in  my  opinion,  should  be  gathered  round 
it. 

I  lament  the  continual  war  which  philoso- 
phers, moralists,  and  divines,  have  hitherto 
waged.  They  have  only  mutually  disparaged 
their  inquiries,  and  retarded  the  knowledge  and 
happiness  of  man.  Would  they  consent  to  lay 
aside  vanity, ^pride,  and  self-interest,  they  would 
perceive,  and  might  display,  the  harmony  that 
exists  between  the  will  of  God  and  his  gift  of 
intelligence. 


PHILOSOPHICAL  CATECHISM. 


GENERALITIES. 


What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  Philoso- 
pher? 

It  signifies  Lover  of  Wisdom. 

And  what  is  understood  by  Wisdom? 

Wisdom  consists  in  the  knowledge  and  in 
the  apphcation  of  Truth. 

Who  then  is  truly  a  philosopher? 

He  who  not  only  loves,  but  w^ho  applies  truth 
universally.     The  second  part  is  as   essential 
to  the  character   of  a   philosopher,  as  is   the 
practice  of  morality  to  that  of  a  christian. 
What  is  the  airn  of  Philosophy? 

To  know  objects  and  phenomena,  and  to 
show  the  possibility  of  making  practical  appli- 
cation of  the  knowledge  acquired. 


2  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

Then  there  must  be  many  kinds  of  philoso- 
phers9 

As  many  as  there  are  species  of  knowledge, 
or  subjects  that  can  occupy  the  attention. — 
One  may  be  a  philosopher,  and  study  entire 
nature,  or  a  particular  district  of  her  domain;  as 
animals,  plants,  minerals,  man  generally,  or  his 
physical,  moral  and  intellectual  parts  in  parti- 
cular. 

What  is  understood  by  a  Law'? 

The  word  law,  among  the  Romans  lex^  has 
the  same  root  as  the  verb  signifying,  to  read;  be- 
cause enactments  for  the  conduct  of  the  com- 
munity were  promulgated  of  old  by  being  read 
in  public.  For  a  long  period,  however,  the 
w^ord  law  has  been  used  to  designate  a  com- 
mandment to  do,  or  to  abstain  from,  some  spe- 
cific act,  in  general  combined  with  a  clause 
expressive  of  some  penalty  attached  to  its  in- 
fringement, and  more  rarely  of  some  reward  to 
its  observance.  The  word  law  is  also  employ- 
ed to  designate  the  inherent  qualities  of  the  ob- 
jects and  the  determinate  manner  in  which  the 
human  faculties,  and  the  qualities  of  organized 
and  inanimate  bodies,  act.     That  is  to  say :  be- 


GENERALITIES.  O 

ings  can  only  act  after  their  peculiar  natures,  or 
according  to  the  qualities  and  powers  with  which 
they  are  endowed.  It  is  a  law,  that  a  stone 
thrown  into  the  air  falls  again  till  it  reaches  the 
ground;  that  the  stomach  digests;  that  the  eye  is 
the  instrunaent  of  vision,  the  ear  of  hearing,  &c. 
Further,  the  title  law  is  applied  to  the  regu- 
larity with  which  bodies  and  animated  beings  act 
upon  each  other,  and  produce  certain  phenom- 
ena. It  is  a  law,  that  caloric  united  with  wa- 
ter changes  it  into  vapor,  that  fire  consumes 
combustible  bodies,  that  poisons  destroy  life; 
and  so  on,  through  the  whole  circle  of  natural 
phenomena. 

How  may  laws  be  divided'? 

They  may  be  classed  under  two  heads — the 
Natural,  and  the  Artificial.  The  first  are  im- 
posed by  the  Creator,  the  second  by  individual 
governors. 

What  is  the  signification  of  the  toord  nature? 

Nature  is  a  word  to  which  three  distinct 
meanings  are    attached: — 

1st,  It  designates  the  universe, — the  heavens, 
the  earth,  all  that  meets  sense: 

2nd,  It  expresses  essence — that  which  char- 


4  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

acterizes  or  constitutes  a  class  of  beings,  or 
individuality.  In  this  sense  we  say:  every  be- 
ing acts  according  to  its  nature ; — man  in  his 
nature  is  not  an  angel;  we  cannot  change  the 
nature  of  things;  we  cannot,  for  example, 
gather  figs  of  thistles,  nor  grapes  of  thorns. 

3rd,  It  is  used  to  signify  the  First  Cause 
personified,  and  may  then  be  considered  as 
synonymous  with  God,  or  Creator. 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  natural  la20S 
or  of  laiDS  established  by  the  Creator^ 

Natural  laws  are  inherent  in  beings,  often 
evident,  always  demonstrable,  universal,  inva- 
riable, and  harmonious. 

How  is  the  first  character  of  natural  laws, 
their  inherence,  explained  ? 

The  laws  of  nature  exist  by  creation,  and 
enter  as  a  part  into  the  constitution  of  beings. 
The  bile  is  secreted  by  the  liver  according  to 
a  natural  law,  and  cannot  be  produced  by  the 
stomach  for  a  similar  reason.  The  stomach 
digests  some  substances  by  a  natural  law,  and 
by  the  same  cause  does  not  digest  others. 
Light  exists  in  conformity  with  certain  laws, 
and  we  cannot  see  that  as  great  which  is  little, 


GENERALITIES.  5 

nor  that  as  little  which  is  great.     The  inher- 
ence of  natural  laws  is  therefore  apparent. 

How  is  the  second   characteristic  of  natural 
laios^  their  regularity^  to  be  apprehended  ? 

The  regularity  of  phenomena  is  so  generally 
evident  as  scarcely  to  require  demonstration. 
Every  one  knows  that  without  support  his 
body  falls,  that  his  hand  brought  too  near  the 
fire  is  burned,  that  there  is  no  vision  without 
light,  and  so  on.  Occasionally,  however,  the 
natural  laws  are  less  apparent;  still  they  may 
always  be  discovered  by  observation.  The 
mechanician  searches  for,  and  finds,  the  laws 
of  his  art;  the  musician  those  of  music;  the 
colorist  those  of  color;  the  landscape-painter 
those  of  perspective,  &c.  A  great  number  of 
natural  laws  are  at  present  unknown,  but  they 
will  be  detected  as  soon  as  truth  is  placed 
above  every  other  consideration — as  soon  as 
the  free  employment  of  the  understanding  is 
allowed,  and  men  have  learned  to  combine  all 
the  characters  of  a  natural  law. 

Hoio  does  the  universality  of  natural  laws 
appear  9 

They  are  the  same  in  every  country.     Che- 
1* 


6  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

mistry  has  no  other  laws  in  France  than  it  has 
in  England,  or  in  any  other  part  of  the  earth; 
carbonic  acid  gas  kills  men  in  the  north  and 
in  the  south,  in  the  east  and  in  the  west;  com- 
binations of  color  iinharmonioiis  in  any  one 
country,  will  not  please  the  eye  viewed  by 
the  sun  of  any  other;  the  same  laws  pervade 
the  music  of  every  nation,  of  the  Enghsh, 
French,  Italians,  Germans,  &c. 

How  are  the  natural  laios  invariable  ? 

They  have  been  the  same  in  all  ages.  The 
principle  of  the  lever,  at  the  present  time,  is 
precisely  the  same  as  it  was  when  the  Phara- 
ohs and  Ptolemies  lived;  the  rules  of  geome- 
try and  arithmetic  have  suffered  no  change 
since  they  were  applied  by  Euclid  and  Ar- 
chimedes; the  beautiful  forms  of  the  Grecian 
marbles  are  still  beautiful;  goodness  since  the 
beginning  has  not  ceased  to  be  beneficent,  and 
so  on.  Our  knowledge  may  be  more  or  less 
extensive,  more  or  less  exact,  but  the  laws 
themselves  never  vary  9 

How  are  the  natural  laics  harmonious? 

The  Creator  has  contrived  all  tilings  as  parts 
of  a  grand  whole,  and  combined  all  his  enact- 


GENERALITIES.  7 

ments  in  perfect  harmoniousness.  Natural 
laws  are,  consequently,  mutually  aidant.  It  is 
ignorance  alone  that  prompts  us  occasionally 
to  fancy  discrepancies  among  them.  The 
laws  of  vegetation  act  in  accordance  with  those 
of  animahzation.  The  fruits  and  substance  of 
plants  yield  food  to  innumerable  tribes  of  ani- 
mals, and  the  excretions  and  the  dead  bodies 
of  animals  in  return  afford  aliment  to  the  infi- 
nite variety  of  vegetables  that  adorn  the  earth. 
The  principle,  that  nothing  is  useless,  is  true 
physically,  as  it  is  morally.  Hence  it  follows, 
that  philosophy  is  to  seek  for,  determine,  and 
expose  the  harmony  of  the  natural  code. 

Jlre  all  inanimate  and  all  livins:  beinsrs  sub- 
ject  to  natural  laws? 

All  beings  whatsoever  have  a  determinate  na- 
ture; all  phenomena  appear  in  conformity  with 
fixed  and  invariable  laws.  Any  opinion  to 
the  contrary  is  fraught  with  danger  to  man- 
kind. 

But  do  not  ice  degrade  the  being — man^  for 
instance — whose  nature  ice  pronounce  to  be  dc' 
terminate? 

Most  certainly  we  do  not.     The  nature  of 


8  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

the  Supreme  being  himself  is  determinate;  he, 
for  instance,  cannot  desire  evil,  for  his  nature 
is  perfection.  Now  we  can  more  readily 
conceive  beings  he  made  and  endowed  accord- 
ing to  his  pleasure  possessed  of  a  determinate 
nature.  Without  this  indeed,  there  would  be 
no  regularity  in  their  functions. 

Jls  the  natural  laws  are  no  where  to  he  found 
reduced  to  writings  hoio  can  we  be  certain  of 
having  discovered  them? 

Observation  and  induction  will  lead  secure- 
ly to  their  knowledge.  We  shall  recognise  them 
certainly  when  they  possess  all  the  distinguish- 
ing characters. 

Are  the  natural  laws  conformable  to  reason? 

They  must  necessarily  be  so.  They  pro- 
duce certain  never-varying  effects;  whatever 
is  undertaken  in  conformiiy  with  their  decrees 
prospers,  and  penalty  is  always  in  proportion 
to  their  infringement. 

JVIust  not  natural  laws  also  be  divine? 

As  they  exist,  they  ai-e  evidently  effects  of 
the  will  of  the  Creator,  or  God. 

Is  there  any  cause  to  apprehend^  from,  the  doc- 
trine of  the  natural  laws,  the  introduction  of 


GENERALITIES.  y 

such  evils  as  attended  on  the  systems  of  govern- 
ment called  TJieocracies? 

The  self-elected  and  presumed  interpreters 
of  a  revelation  have  always  had  much  better 
opportunities  of  acting  arbitrarily,  and  of  en- 
forcing belief,  than  can  fall  to  the  lot  of  the 
proposers  of  natural  laws.  The  priesthood 
has  generally  taught  dogmatically,  and  inter- 
dicted the  use  of  reason.  Natural  law,  on  the 
contrary,  is  submitted  to  the  free  scrutiny  of 
all,  and  is  appreciated  in  great  part  by  means 
of  reason:  every  one,  so  inclining,  may,  under 
the  guidance  of  observation,  be  convinced  of 
the  reality  of  its  several  propositions.  There 
is  nothing  but  good  to  be  anticipated  from  the 
study  of  the  natural  law. 

Have  not  the  made  and  artificial  laios  of 
men  the  distinguishing  features  of  those  ivhich 
are  natural? 

Enacted  by  beings  who  may  err  themselves, 
or  who,  from  various  motives,  may  wish  to  de- 
ceive and  to  lead  others  into  error,  they  are 
often  founded  on  caprice,  and  on  partial  con- 
siderations; they  are  frequently  modified  by 
local  and  individual  circumstances;  they  vary 


10  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

in  every  nation,  and  have  changed  with  the 
different  epochs  in  the  history  of  each.  Such 
a  law  would  not  have  been  instituted,  had  not 
such  a  man  lived  or  such  an  event  happened. 
The  act  which  the  arbitrary  law  of  one  coun- 
try approves,  is  often  condemned  by  the  made 
code  of  another.  It  has  even  happened,  that 
laws  simultaneously  imposed  have  been  mutu- 
ally subversive.  They  are  frequently  repug- 
nant to  good  sense,  and  they  have  also  been 
unjust;  for  they  have  conferred  immunities  and 
privileges  on  individuals,  have  attached  re- 
wards and  punishments  by  no  means  commen- 
surate to  the  extent  of  virtuous  conduct,  or 
the  magnitude  of  criminal  actions,  and  have 
ranked  as  virtues  and  as  vices  actions  altogeth- 
er insignificant  or  purely  indifferent. 

Can  society  neglect  positive  laics — that  is  to 
say,  rules  of  conduct  which,  clearly  announced, 
are  binding  on  all  its  members? 

No;  there  are  few  who  may  be  left  to  them- 
selves, to  their  good  pleasure,  to  their  inch- 
nations  and  their  judgments.  The  majority  of 
mankind  requires  positive  laws  for  its  direction, 


GENERALITIES.  11 

and  frequent  admonition  as  to  what   is  to  be 
done  and  what  left  alone. 
Wherefore  is  this'? 

Because  of  the  generally  deficient  strength 
of  the  sentiments  which  dictate  the  Moral 
Law^  and  the  true  rule  of  conduct  in  the  world. 

Mmitting  the  necessity  of  a  positive  code 
then^  is  there  any  essential  difference  between 
natural  and  positive  laws'? 

There  ought  to  be  none.  The  natural  laws 
should  be  promulgated  as  positive  and  obliga- 
tory on  all.  Unfortunately,  this  is  not  done. 
The  positive  laws  of  society  are  even  too  fre- 
quently the  very  opposite  of  those  which  the 
Creator  dictates. 

How  may  the  artificial  laws  he  subdivided^ 

Into  arbitrary  or  absolute  and  into  conven- 
tional. The  former  are  the  result  of  the  good 
pleasure  of  the  ruler,  the  others  are  fixed  upon 
by  the  agreement  of  several  legislators. 

What  titles  are  given  to  the  transgression  of 
any  law  whatever  9 

As  regards  rehgion,  Sin,  and  as  concerns 
civil  enactments.  Crime.  These  are  the 
most  comprehensive  terms  in  use. 


12  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

Do  transgressions  of  the  law^  or  sins  and 
crimes^  admit  of  degrees  of  gravity'? 

That  they  do  is  a  point  admitted  by  all  le- 
gislators, civil  as  well  as  religious. 

What  title  is  given  to  the  consequence  of  the 
infringement  of  a  laio  ? 

Evil. 

Are  there  many  and  various  kinds  of  evil  9 

Evil  is  first  physical,  or  it  is  moral;  then  it 
is  individual,  or  general;  lastly  it  is  temporal, 
or  eternal. 

Are  not  these  different  kinds  of  evil  linked  to- 
gether and  inseparable  ? 

Physical  and  moral  evil  engender  each  other 
mutuall3^  Individuals  and  society  are  con- 
nected and  in  relation;  and,  according  to  the 
christian  religion,  our  fate  through  eternity  de- 
pends on  the  present  life. 

Does  it  ever  happen  that  man  suffers  inno- 
cently; that  is  to  say^  for  the  transgression  of  a 
law  in  ignorance  of  its  existence  ? 

It  occurs  frequently,  and  in  reference  to 
the  whole  of  the  three  kinds  of  natural  laws. 
The  punishments,  too,  are  always  as  severe 
as  if  merited  by  wilful  neglect.     Belladonna 


GENERALITIES.  13 

kills  him  who  knows  not,  as  well  as  him  who 
knows,  its  poisonous  quality,  the  man  of  gen- 
ius and  the  fool,  the  pious  and  the  impious. 
All  suffer  alike  who  infringe,  as  all  without  ex- 
ception prosper  who  obey,  the  natural  laws. 

Is  the  study  of  man  a  study  of  great  impor- 
tance 9 

What  of  so  much  ?  Man  is  at  the  head  of 
the  terrestrial  creation.  He  alone  examines 
the  causes  of  natural  phenomena  and  imitates 
many  of  them.  He  alone  elevates  his  thoughts 
to  the  conception  of  a  first  cause  and  is  sus- 
ceptible of  moral  and  religious  ideas. 

What  is  the  great  object  of  the  philosophy  of 
man  9 

To  determine  accurately  the  fundamental 
powers  of  the  human  mind  and  to  ascertain  the 
conditions  under  which  these  are  exhibited; 
to  indicate  the  causes  of  the  functions  vari- 
ously modified  in  individuals;  and  to  show  the 
necessity  of  man's  as  well  as  of  every  other 
created  being's  submission  to  the  laws  which 
the  Creator  imposes  to  enjoy  happiness  and  to 
secure  success  in  his  undertakings. 

Is  the  agency  of  the  natural  law  suspended, 
because  of  man's  living  in  society? 


14  NATURAL    LAWS    OT    MAN. 

By  no  means.  Man  was  destined  to  live  m 
society,  and  obedience  to  one  natural  ordina- 
tion cannot  render  another  ineffective.  The 
Creator  has  laid  down  certain  laws  for  man's 
social  state,  adherence  to  which  is  indispensa- 
ble to  his  happiness,  under  whatever  circum- 
stances he  may  chance  to  be  placed. 

Is  mankind  happy? 

To  whatever  side  we  turn  our  eyes,  the  un- 
fortunate, and  miserable,  and  discontented  meet 
our  view.  There  are  very  few  indeed  who 
are  happy. 

Wherein  consists  the  happiness  of  man? 

In  the  satisfaction  of  his  faculties. 

Does  the  happiness  of  men  differ;  or,  is  that 
which  gratifies  one,  calculated  to  be  agreeable 
to  all? 

Happiness  differs  universally  according  to  in- 
dividual constitution.  There  are  as  many  dis- 
tinct species  of  happiness  and  pleasure,  as 
there  are  fundamental  faculties;  and  men  being 
unlike  in  mental  endowment,  the  cause  of  hap- 
piness in  one  case  is  frequently  a  source  of 
disgust  in  a  second,  and  is  unnoticed  as  either 
in  a  third. 


GENERALITIES.  15 

We  cannot,  therefore,  find  amj  measure  of  the 
happiness  of  others,  in  taking  ourselves  as 
standards? 

Certainly  we  cannot;  because  the  faculties 
are  not  equally  nor  alike  active  in  all  men. 

In  what  does  the-  misery  of  man  consist? 

In  the  non-satisfaction  of  his  faculties. 

Then  the  causes  of  the  misery  of  man  are 
different,  are  they  not? 

They  vary  according  to  the  faculty  or  fac- 
ulties which  are  active,  and  which  are  not  sat- 
isfied. 

What  is  the  principal  cause  of  the  unhappi- 
ness  of  man? 

Ignorance  and  transgression  of  the  natural 
law. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  to  know  and  to 
practise  the  natural  law  is  extremely  important? 

As  evil  consists  in  its  transgression,  and  good 
in  its  accomplishment,  and  as  its  infringement 
is  the  principal  cause  of  man's  unhappiness, 
the  natural  law  ought  to  be  made  a  principal 
study  with  every  individual,  it  should  be  learn- 
ed by  heart,  and  its  precepts  never  lost  sight 
of  in  the  business  of  life. 


16  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

Holo  may  the  natural  laws  of  man  be  subdi- 
vided? 

Into  three  kinds,  after  the  threefold  na- 
ture of  his  functions,  viz.  Vegetative,  Intellect- 
ual and  Moral. 

Do  these  three  kinds  of  laws  exert  a  mutual 
influence? 

They  do,  and  it  is  of  much  importance  not 
to  confound  the  fundamental  faculties  in  which 
diey  inhere,  with  the  products  of  the  mutual 
influence  of  those  faculties,  nor  the  existence 
of  three  kinds  of  laws  with  their  reciprocal  re- 
lations. 


SECTION  I. 

OF    THE    VEGETATIVE    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

What  natural  laws  of  man  are  Vegetative^ 

Those  which  concern  the  preservation  of  his 
body  are  so  entitled. 

How  may  these  laws  be  divided? 

Into  two  orders,  having  for  their  objects 
respectively, 

1st,  The  preservation  of  the  individual, 

2nd,  The  preservation  of  the  species. 

What  are  the  most  important  of  the  natural 
laivs  that  relate  to  the  preservation  of  individu' 
als9 

1st,  A  good  innate  constitution,  and  2nd, The 
laws  of  dietetics  which  include  temperature, 
hght,air,  food,  cleanhness, exercise  and  repose. 

Is  not  a  perfect  attention  to  the  laws  of  diet- 
etics indispensable  to  health  9 

Yes;  a  certain  quantity  of  caloric  is  neces- 
sary to  hfe,  but  it  injures  the  bodily  health  in 

too  great  abundance   or   too  great   scarcity. 

2* 


18  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

Cold  engenders  many  complaints,  not  only 
among  the  poor  but  also  among  the  rich. 
The  impossibility  of  guarding  against  sudden 
changes  of  temperature,  and  the  imprudence 
with  which  all  expose  themselves  to  these, 
are  causes  of  innumerable  diseases.  The 
quality  of  the  air  man  breathes  also  influences 
his  bodily  state.  Carbonic  acid  gas  suppres- 
ses the  vital  functions,  hydrogen  retards,  and 
oxigen  accelerates  them;  marsh  miasmata  pro- 
duce diseases,  &c.  Air  free  from  all  putrid  or 
other  exhalations  is  necessary  to  enable  man 
to  exercise  his  various  attributes  with  energy. 

Howmay  the  dietetic  laws  that  relate  to  Ali- 
mentation he  considered  9 

Either  as  the  quantity  or  the  quality  of  ali- 
mentary matter  is  concerned. 

Does  the  quality  of  man's  food  deserve  atten- 
tion 9 

It  should  be  accommodated  to  age,  tempera- 
ment, climate,  and  season,  and  should  vary 
with  the  prevailing  weather,  and  the  state  of 
health  of  the  individual.  Whatever  is  easily 
digested  is  wholesome,  whatever  is  not  is  per- 
nicious.    Many  enactments  of  ancient  legisla- 


VEGETATIVE    LAWS.  19 

tors  show  their  sense  of  the  propriety  of  reg- 
ulating the  quahty  of  ahment.  Rehgious  law- 
givers seem  also  to  have  had  the  same  end  in 
view,  when  they  pronounced  certain  kinds  of 
food  to  be  clean,  and  certain  others  to  be  un- 
clean. Pork  in  the  warm  countries  of  the 
East  is  unwholesome,  and  the  Jews  and  Ma- 
hometans are  forbidden  by  a  religious  com- 
mandment to  eat  of  it. 

Does  the  general  law  in  regard  to  the  salu' 
hrity  of  aliments  vary  in  diffei^ent  countries  ? 

In  every  chmate  the  general  law  is  the  same: 
such  food  is  uni\'ersally  to  be  used  as  may  be 
digested  with  ease.  But  aliment  varies  in  kind 
In  every  diflerent  country;  and  as  food,  by  an- 
other natural  law,  must  always  harmonize  with 
the  particular  circumstances  of  existence, 
with  age,  temperament,  climate,  &c.  such 
things  cannot  be  proper,  in  lands  where  the 
excessive  heat  and  light  of  the  sun  stimulate 
the  vital  functions  greatly,  as  are  wholesome 
and  even  necessary  in  regions  where  fogs  and 
frost  and  darkness  cramp  the  energies  of  man. 

There  is  nothing  then  clean  or  unclean  in 
itself  2 


20  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

Nothing.  Every  thing,  however,  may  de- 
serve either  title  by  its  employment  in  general 
or  in  particular  cases. 

Are  the  dietetic  rules  of  the  Jews  cf  Palestine  ^ 
and  of  the  Egyptians,  adapted  to  the  nations  of 
the  north  9 

By  no  means.  To  prescribe  the  same 
course  of  diet  to  the  inhabitants  of  every  coun- 
try of  the  globe,  would  not  be  less  absurd  than 
to  command  the  same  material,  and  the  same 
form,  for  the  garments  of  the  Esquimaux,  Eu- 
ropean, and  native  of  Senegal. 

How  is  the  natural  law,  having  reference  to 
quantity  of  food,  entitled  ? 

Sobriety  or  Temperance. 

Is  this  laio  of  much  importance  ? 

It  exerts  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  well- 
being  of  individuals.  The  sober  man  digests 
easily,  his  body  is  properly  nourished,  and  he 
is  ever  in  a  condition   to  attend  to  his  aflairs. 

What  crimes  are  committed  against  Sobrie- 
ty9 

Gluttony  and  Drunkenness. 

What  evils  attend  on  the  first  of  these  9 

A  long  train  of  ills  wait  upon  gluttony.     It 


VEGETATIVE  LAWS.  21 

Injures  the  health,  and  weakens  the  digestive 
powers;  or  it  brings  on  obesity, unfits  the  body 
for  Its  duties,  obscures  the  powers  of  the 
mind,  and  occasions  every  species  of  incon- 
venience. 

What  evils  accompany  the  second  crime 
against  Sobriety'? 

The  consequences  which  attend  drunken- 
ness are  nearly  similar,  but  greater  in  degree. 
Drunkenness  undermines  the  health,  enfeebles 
digestion,  and  reduces  its  unhappy  votary  to 
the  level  of  the  brutes;  It  deprives  him  of  the 
distinctions  of  humanity,  which  his  Creator  had 
given  for  his  guidance,  rendering  him  equally 
unfit  for  business  and  unworthy  of  trust;  and, 
making  him  quarrelsome  and  unreasonable,  it 
fills  his  home  with  misery  and  disorder. 

What  is  the  natural  law  which  forbids  the 
abuse  of  solid  or  liquid  aliment? 

It  is  the  law  of  Abstinence. 

Does  this  law  absolutely  forbid  all  food 
nohatever  for  a  season,  or  certain  kinds  offood^ 
as  wine^  entirely? 

It  does  no  more  than  interdict  those  things 
that  are  noxious,  and  the  abuse  of  those  which 


22  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

are  good  and  proper.  But  this  simple  and  salu- 
tary interpretation  has  been  abandoned;  sound 
views  and  excellent  laws  have  been  misunder- 
stood, and  changed  into  superstitious  observ- 
ances— the  original  aim  of  their  institution  has 
indeed  been  very  generally  lost  sight  of  alto- 
gether. To  subdue  their  animal  appetites,  the 
inhabitants  of  Roman  Cathohc  countries  are 
commanded  to  eat  no  flesh  on  certain  days  of 
the  week,  but  they  may  still  drink  wine,  live 
upon  fish,  with  rich  and  stimulating  sauces, 
on  eggs,  lobsters,  and  various  shell-fish.  Now 
sensualism  is  in  fact  more  excited  by  such  al- 
iments than  by  the  flesh  of  animals  plainly 
dressed.  The  Mahometans  are  forbidden  to 
drink  wine,  but  they  still  may  intoxicate  ihem- 
selves  by  the  unrestrained  use  of  cofl^ee,  opium 
and  tobacco;  during  the  Rhammadan,  they  are 
commanded  to  touch  neither  solid  nor  liquid 
food  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  by  a  restriction 
which,  however,  allows  them  to  revel  in  de- 
bauchery from  sunset  to  sunrise,  &.c. 

Are  certain  days  indicated  by  the  natural 
law  as  proper  to  be  observed  as  fasts? 

Sobriety  and  the  law  of  Abstinence,  are  never 


VEGETATIVE    LAWS.  23 

to  be  interrupted  in  their  agency ,  never  to  be  de- 
parted from.  No  specific  day,  or  number  of 
days,  are  pointed  out  by  the  natural  law  as  es- 
pecial Fasts.  We  must  ever  eat  and  drink 
that  we  may  live,  not  live  that  we  may  eat  and 
drink.  The  laws  of  hunger  and  thirst  exist; 
and  he  who  obeys  not  their  calls  in  due  season 
and  at  fitting  time,  is  as  much  guilty  of  a  breach 
of  the  divine  will,  as  he  who  abuses  them  by 
brutal  indulgence. 

Does  it  not  follow  from  this,  that  the  laws  of 
sobriety^  and  abstinence  or  fasting,  are  to  be 
enforced,  not  to  phase  the  Creator,  but  purely 
to  advantage  man^ 

The  first  interpretation  is  the  effect  of  igno- 
rance, and  is  repugnant  to  good  sense.  These 
natural  laws  have  no  other  end  but  the  happi- 
ness of  individuals,  and  of  the  kind  at  large, 
and  as  they  exert  a  powerful  influence  over 
the  health,  the  habitual  dispositions,  and  the 
momentary  aflections  of  the  mind,  they  ought 
to  be  taught  and  made  universally  known. 
Man,  it  is  evident,  feels  his  bodily  as  well  as 
his  mental  state  to  vary  during  a  fast,  and  after 
a  hearty  meal.     A  cup  of  strong  coffee,  or  a 


24  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

glass  of  generous  wine,  gives  more  or  less  ac- 
tivity both  to  the  body  and  to  the  mind.  Al- 
iment is  the  principal  cause  of  the  organic  con- 
stitution, on  which  depends  the  degree  of  en- 
ergy possessed  by  the  fundamental  faculties  of 
the  body  and  mind.  Without  a  body  and  a 
brain,  there  is  no  exhibition  of  vegetative  or 
mental  phenomena  in  this  world;  without  food 
there  can  be  neither  body  nor  brain. — Hence 
the  importance  of  the  natural  laws  of  alimenta- 
tion. 

Was  the  importance  of  the  law  of  Sobriety 
known  to  the  ancients  J 

The  rules  of  dietetics  among  them  constitu- 
ted a  great  part  of  moral  science,  and  of  the 
revealed  commandments.  This  proves  suffi- 
ciently the  attention  they  bestowed  on  them, 
and  the  degree  of  importance  they  attached  to 
their  observance. 

Jlre  not  the  laws  of  bodily  exercise  also  to 
be  carefully  observed? 

Bodily  exercise  is  useful  at  every  period 
of  life;  it  is,  however,  more  especially  so  dur- 
ing youth,  and  the  years  of  corporeal  devel- 
opement. 


VEGETATIVE    LAWS.  25 

Has  attention  to  the  law  of  cleanliness  any 
influence  on  individuals'? 

Cleanliness,  as  it  tends  to  keep  up  free  cuta- 
neous transpiration — a  process  absolutely  ne- 
cessary to  perfect  health,  demands  sedulous 
cultivation.  Those  who  are  very  cleanly  in 
their  persons  and  in  their  houses,  are  more 
healthy  than  those  who  are  slovenly,  and  live 
amid  filth. 

What  had  consequences  result  from  a  neglect 
of  the  natural  law  of  cleanliness? 

These  are  very  numerous.  Cutaneous  dis- 
eases, malignant  fevers,  and  contagious  influ- 
ences generally,  are  engendered;  and  various 
insects — those  disgusting  appendages  of  filth 
and  poverty — are  encouraged  to  multiply! 

Did  the  ancients  give  any  heed  to  the  laws  of 
cleanliness? 

By  ranking  attention  to  cleanliness  among 
the  religious  virtues,  and  its  neglect  among  the 
sins,  and  by  instituting  ablutions  and  purifica- 
tions ancient  lawgivers  had  demonstrated 
their  knowledge  of  the  good  and  evil  effects 
attendant  on  the  observance  or  neglect  of  its 
law. 

3 


26  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

How  are  the  laws  that  especially  interest  the 
preservation  of  the  species  named  9 

The  laws  of  hereditary  descent;  for  parents 
exercise  a  mighty  influence  over  the  physical 
condition  of  their  offspring.  General  consti- 
tution, bodily  qualities,  individual  peculiarities, 
diseases  &c.  are  transmitted  from  sires  to  sons. 

What  are  the  conditions  required  to  accom-' 
plish  the  laios  of  hereditary  descent  ? 

Every  person  ought  to  have  attained  com- 
plete growth,  and  mature  soUdity  of  fibre,  and 
also  to  be  in  possession  of  confirmed  good 
health,  before  putting  himself  into  the  way  of 
having  a  family.  Those  who  marry  too  young 
ruin  their  health,  and  procreate  miserable, 
dwarfish,  and  weakly  children,  whose  lives  are 
useless  to  the  commonwealth,  and  burthen- 
some  to  themselves.  Those,  again,  who  have 
passed  the  meridian  of  life,  or  have  sufl:ered 
from  debilitating  causes,  before  marriage,  have 
also  an  infirm  and  degenerate  family. 

What  then  should  induce  abnegation  of  mar-' 
riage  9 

No  one  who  has  the  seeds  of  hereditary  dis- 
ease, such  as  scrofula,  consumption,  insanity, 


VEGETATIVE    LAWS.  27 

gout,  Stone,  &c.  &c.  lurking  in  his  constitu- 
tion, ought  to  many. 

Do  not  individuals^  sprung  from  the  same 
stockj  commit  a  grave  error  ivhen  they  inter- 
marry 9 

Marriages  between  near  relations  are  very 
frequently  sterile,  or  the  progeny  is  bastardiz- 
ed, unpromising,  and  oftentimes  idiotic.  For 
this  reason  it  was  that  several  ancient  legisla- 
tors interdicted  such  unions.  Like  misfor- 
tunes, although  in  a  less  degree,  afflict  the  fami- 
lies that  intermarry  for  a  long  period  of  time. 
The  offspring  speedily  feels  a  deteriorating  in- 
fluence; its  physical  and  moral  powers  are  en- 
feebled by  degrees,  and  the  race  is  ultimately 
extinguished. 

WJiat  is  the  most  important  moment  for  the 
body  of  living  beings  9 

It  is  the  moment  of  receiving  existence. 
The  form,  dimensions,  and  texture  of  the 
body  and  its  parts,  the  energy  of  the  vegetative 
functions,  and  the  whole  fate  of  the  future  be- 
ing, in  regard  to  health,  disease.  Sec.  depend 
on  this  instant. 

Marriages  ought  therefore  to  he  better  assort- 


28  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

ed  than  they  are  at  present^  were  it  merely  to 
benefit  the  physical  part  of  man^s  nature  9 

Greater  attention  in  this  particular  would 
spare  much  sorrow  to  families.  A  dwarfish 
and  sickly  offspring  is  in  itself  a  dreadful  mis- 
fortune, and  v^ery  often  poisons  all  the  pleasures 
of  existence  to  parents. 

Submission  to  the.  laivs  of  hereditary  descent 
appears  to  be  of  the  first-rate  importance — does 
it  not  9 

General  as  well  as  individual  happiness  is 
impUcated  in  their  observance.  Attention  to 
their  dictates  will  influence  the  improvement 
of  the  species  far  more  than  any  measure  be- 
sides that  can  be  taken,  and  will  consequently 
do  more  to  advantage  general  happiness  than 
any  other  exactment  whatsoever.  The  laws 
of  hereditary  descent  exist;  those  who  submit 
will  be  happy  and  blessed  in  their  offspring, 
those  who  neglect  them,  though  they  them- 
selves escape,  will  have  prepared  abundant 
cause  of  misery  to  their  children  and  to  pos- 
terity. 

Hoio  comes  it  that  so  little  attention  has  hitlt- 
erto  been  paid  to  the  laws  of  hereditary  descent 
in  contracting  marriage  ') 


VEGETATIVE    LAWS.  29 

Ignorance  may  in  part  be  blamed,  and  the 
dominion  of  inferior  inclinations  particularly 
of  acquisitiveness,  love  of  approbation  and 
self  esteem  may  very  fairly  be  charged  with 
the  rest  of  the  transgressions  committed  against 
them. 

Ought  not  the  Imcs  of  hereditary  descent  to 
be  taught  J  then? 

They  ought,  as  soon  as  young  people  can 
understand  how  they  themselves  came  into  the 
\vorld.  Knowledge  of  these  laws  could  not  fail 
to  produce  the  most  beneficial  efiects;  for  even 
personal  views  would  unite  with  nobler  and 
higher  considerations,  to  make  the  youth  avoid 
acts  and  connections  that  might  bring  misery 
to  dwell  with  th^m  for  the  remainder  of  their 
lives.  But  even  admitting  the  impossibility  of 
finding  means  that  would  succeed  completely 
in  opening  men's  eyes — acknowledging  the 
probable  continuance  of  the  reign  of  disorder, 
we  are  nevertheless  to  use  every  effort  in  pro- 
mulgating knowledge,  which,  acted  upon,  would 
render  mankind  better  and  more  happy.  The 
laws  of  hereditary  descent  occupy  a  place  in 
the  foremost  rank  of  importance,  and  ought 
3* 


30  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

never  to  be  lost  sight  of  by  the  well  wishers  of 
humanity. 

What  points  does  the  law^  in  its  most  com- 
prehensive signification  J  that  governs  the  phy- 
sical part  ofman^s  nature,  comprise? 

The  doing  whatever  may  contribute  to  the 
development  and  preservation  of  the  body,  the 
avoiding  all  that  may  militate  against  this,  the 
putting  the  corporeal  state  into  harmony  with 
the  exhibition  of  the  intellectual  and  moral 
laws,  or,  in  the  religious  language  of  the  an- 
cients, in  making  the  body  a  temple  and  an 
instrument  of  Intellect  and  Morality. 

Is  practice  of  the  vegetative  laws  necessary? 

The  existence  of  these  laws  and  the  neces- 
sity of  submitting  to  them  are  synonymous. 
Without  this,  man  can  never  prosper  or  be 
happy;  without  this,  the  accomplishment  of 
the  moral  and  intellectual  laws  is  impossible. 
The  importance,  nay  the  necessity,  of  con- 
forming strictly  to  all  they  ordain,  follows  ir- 
resistibly as  a  corollary. 


SECTION  II. 

OP    THE    INTELLECTUAL    LAWS    OF  MAN. 

What  is  the  essence  of  Litelligence,  or  Vh' 
der  standing? 

It  is,  to  know.  The  Intellect  alone  ac- 
quires knowledge,  of  whatever  kind  it  be. 

In  what  does  Intelligence  consist — or,  what  is 
Intelligence? 

InteUigence  is  a  word  which,  at  one  time, 
designates  a  personified  principle  which  knows; 
at  another,  no  more  than  an  attribute  of  a  prin- 
ciple— the  faculty  of  knowing;  sometimes  also 
the  name  is  used  to  signify  the  functions  col- 
lectively which  have  place  with  consciousness. 

In  what  are  philosophers  agreed,  in  their 
discussions  upon  intelligence,  and  in  what  do 
they  differ? 

All  agree  as  to  the  effects  of  Intellect;  for  all 
assign  to  it  every  species  of  knowledge,— to  know 
is  its  nature:  but  differences  occur  as  to  what  it 
is  that  knows,  as  to  the  objects  known,the  con- 


32  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

ditions  necessary  to  knowledge,  and  the  vari- 
ous degrees  of  certainty  of  our  knowledge. 

W  hat  opinion  is  the  most  generally  enter- 
tained as  to  that  which  knows9 

The  greatest  number  of  philosophers  speak 
of,  and  admh,  an  incorporeal  something,  inhab- 
iting man's  body,  which  knows.  Others,  how- 
ever, consider  knowledge  as  a  function  or  pro- 
duct of  certain  organic  structures. 

How  are  these  two  classes  of  philosophers  en- 
titled'? 

The  partizans  of  the  first  opinion  are  called 
Spiritualists,  those  of  the  second,  Materialists. 

What  was  the  literal  meaning  of  the  icord 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans^  which  corres- 
ponds to  Spirit  or   Soul  among  the  moderns? 

Air,  or  breath. 

»Rnd  by  what  name  is  the  doctrine  of  the  incor- 
poreal something  of  man'' s  constitution  design 
nated? 

It  is  termed  Psychology,  from  the  Greek 
4^f;fj?  soul,  and  Ao^oc  discourse  or  doctrine. 

What  are  the  ideas  most  generally  entertain- 
fid  concerning  this  incorporeal  part  of  man? 

That  it  inhabits  our  mortal  body,  by  the  me- 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  33 

dium  or  assistance  of  which  its  operations  are 
variously  manifested,  and  from  which  it  is  sep- 
arated at  death,  to  change  its  habitation. 

By  what  name  have  some  modern  French 
philosophers  entitled  the  vis,  or  power  which 
knows  and  the  result  of  its  activity  or  knoW' 
ledge? 

They  have  called  the  power  which  knows, 
Sensibility,  without  paying  further  attention  to 
its  nature,  its  actual  state,  or  its  destiny;  and  to 
the  product  of  sensibility,  that  is,  knowledge, 
they  have  given  the  general  title,  Sensation. 

Can  loe,  by  reasonings  arrive  at  conclusions 
on  the  nature  of  that  which  knows^  on  its  man' 
ner  of  acting,  or  on  its  filial  destination? 

These  are  purely  subjects  of  rehgious  be- 
lief, and  history  shows  that  opinions,  the  most 
contradictory  and  unlikely,  have  been  promul- 
gated and  received  in  regard  to  them. 

What  conclusion  is  to  he  draim  from  this 
fact? 

That  every  individual  is  to  have  full  permis- 
sion to  beheve  that  which  to  him  seems  good 
and  proper,  provided  neither  individual  nor 
general  happiness  be  compromised. 


34  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

Announcing  the  fact — Man  Knoics^ — lohat 
points  are  especially  to  be  attended  to  in  exam- 
ining his  knoioledge? 

It  is  necessary  above  all  things  to  determine 
accurately  that  which  he  can,  and  that  which 
he  cannot  know;  to  specify  the  various  sorts 
of  knowledge,  and  indicate  the  conditions  un- 
der which  each  may  be  acquired;  to  establish 
the  natural  laws,  or  the  regularity  with  which 
every  thing  happens;  and  thus  to  found  on  a 
sure  basis  the  happiness  of  individuals  and  of 
the  human  kind. 

What  can  man  knoiv? 

Strict  reason  demonstrates  that  he  only 
knows  his  individual  identity,  and  the  modified 
conditions  of  his  self.  Plain  sense  says  that 
man  laiows,  first,  his  existence,  many  parts 
which  constitute  his  frame,  many  internal 
functions,  called  feelings  and  intellect,  or 
affective  and  intellectual  faculties; — Moreover, 
that  he  knows  a  great  number  of  external  ob- 
jects, as  existences;  th.at  he  further  knows  their 
physical  qualities,  their  mutual  relations,  and 
their  relations  with  himself  and  with  others; 
lastly,  that  he  knows  regularity,  or  the  laws  of 
all  the  knowledge  lie  })ossesses. 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  35 

How  may  the  external  objects  of  human 
knowledge  be  divided^ 

Into  Matters^  and  Spirits  or  Souls, 

What,,  according  to  the  ancients,  are  the 
characteristics  of  matter,  and  of  spirit  or  soul'? 

Matter  was  characterized  by  its  inertia,  and 
certain  qualities  styled  physical,  such  as  form, 
size,  weight,  and  impenetrability.  Spirit,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  distinguished  by  its  form- 
lessness, and  its  power  of  conferring  activity  on 
matter. 

Have  opinions  on  these  points  been  constant^ 

No.  Mankind  have  not  at  all  times  recog- 
nized the  same  number  either  of  elementary 
matters  or  spirits.  Simple  substances  were 
long  confined  to  four,  but  modern  chemistry 
in  its  progress  has  augmented  the  quantity 
prodigiously. 

Under  what  forms  does  matter  occur  in  the 
world9 

It  exists  in  the  solid,  hquid,  aeriform  or  im- 
ponderable state. 

Are  not  researches  upon  matter  in  some  of 
these  conditions  more  especially  difficult^ 

Researches  upon  imponderable  bodies  are 


36  >fATURAL    LAWS   OP    MAN. 

particularly  so:  for  matter  in  this  state  is  in- 
timately connected  with  the  personified  princi- 
ples which  act  in  the  human  body;  and  here, 
observation  and  induction,  the  sole  guides  to 
certainty,  abandon  the  investigator. 

What  difference  is  there  between  matter  gener- 
ally and  an  organized  body'? 

Matter  may,  1st,  be  simple;  an  organized 
body  is  always  compounded: 

2nd,  Matter  has  not  been  engendered,  and 
has  no  generative  power;  organized  bodies  are 
products  of  previously  existing  individuals, 
their  like : 

3rd,  matter  of  different  kinds,  however  min- 
gled, chemically  or  mechanically,  can  never 
exhibit  vital  functions  after  the  manner  of  an 
organized  body. 

What  are  the  points  of  resemblance  between 
matter  generally  and  organized  bodies;  accord- 
ing to  ancients? 

1st,  Inertia,  and 
2nd,  Each  being  actuated  by  immaterial  caus- 
es or  spirits. 

To  what  has  the  organizing  power  of  the 
body  been  ascribed  by  the  old  philosophers, 
und  with  what  degree  of  accuracy? 


i 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  37 

To  the  "soul  or  spirit.  But  this  conclusion 
is  not  probably  correct.  A  beautiful  body  fol- 
lows not  necessarily  as  a  consequence  of  a 
superior  soul, and  many  very  plain  persons  at- 
tach our  good  opinion  and  gain  our  confidence 
by  their  amiable  tempers  and  general  good 
qualities. 

What  is  it  impossible  for  man  to  knoic? 

It  is  certain  that  he  can  know  nothing  in  it- 
self, neither  the  essence  of  his  own  nature  nor 
that  of  external  objects.  The  self  of  the  con- 
scious man  is  nothing  more  to  him  than  an  ob- 
ject of  observation.  Farther  mian  cannot  know 
either  the  beginning  or  the  end  or  final  desti- 
nation of  aught  that  is;  he  can  only  observe 
what  is,  the  conditions  under  which  it  is,  and 
the  regularity  with  which  the  phenomena  hap- 
pen.      His  knowledge  is  merely  phenomenal. 

In  what  way  can  man  know^  or  acquire  know- 
ledge'^ 

Og^  by  observing  and  inducing;  for  reflec- 
tion will  no  more  reveal  to  man  his  own  na- 
ture, than  it  will  give  him  information  of  exter- 
nal objects,  with  their  physical  qualities  and 
their  relations.  The  study  of  man  by  the 
4 


33  NATURAL    LAWS    Op    MAN 

a  priori  method,  or  reflection,  has  retarded  the? 
knowledge  of  his  nature  extremely.  Every 
one  who  entered  on  the  subject  assuming  him- 
self as  the  type  of  the  whole  species,  confound- 
ed his  own  peculiarities  w  ith  the  essential  or  gen- 
eral constitution  of  humanity;  as  if  one  blind 
from4)irth  should  do  well  in  imagining  all  man- 
kind similarly  circumstanced.  Hence  arose 
as  many  systems  of  mental  philosophy  as 
there  were  thinkers. 

What  can  man  knoto  of  his  own  nature'? 

First,  his  body,  its  constituent  parts,  its 
functions,  the  laws  of  its  preservation,  and  the 
laws  of  propagation;  further,  his  own  aftective 
and  intellectual  operations,  and  those  of  his 
fellow  men;  lastly,  ihe  conditions  necessary 
to  the  manifestation  of  these,  and  the  regulari- 
ty or  laws  according  to  which  ihey  appear  or 
are  produced. 

Man  then  J  it  appears^  is  destined  to  knoio? 

The  law  of  nature  proclaims  that  he  is. 
Intelligence  is  as  essential  a  part  of  maii  as 
his  body.  Without  it,  neither  individuals  nor 
the  species  could  be  preserved   or  continued. 

Intelligence  being  an  inherent  part  of  human 
nature^  why  do  some  oppose  its  cultivation? 


INTELLECTUAL  LAWS  39 

All  who  do  so  are  to  -be  regarded  with  a 
very  suspicious  eye.  They  are  such  as  would 
lead  mankind  blindfolded,  and  obedient  to  their 
arbitrary  will  and  pleasure,  for  selfish  and  sin- 
ister ends.  It  is  unquestionably  much  easier 
to  render  the  ignorant  and  uncultivated  subser- 
vient to  unworthy  purposes,  than  the  instruct- 
ed and  reasoning  man.  Knowledge,  too,  and 
the  habit  of  reflection,  detect  errors  which 
pride  and  selfishness  would  willingly  keep  con- 
cealed. The  abuses  or  misapplication  of  in- 
tellect have  also  been  confounded  with  intel- 
lect itself.  Now,  intellect  only  supphes  the 
means  of  executing,  it  gives  not  the  motive 
or  aim  of  the  action. — As  rehgion  is  not  the 
less  respectable  because  of  the  crimes  com- 
mitted in  its  name,  neidier  is  intellect  because 
of  its  abuses. 

Is  it  not  reasonable  then  to  cultivate  the  un- 
derstanding'^ 

The  cultivation  of  the  Intellect,  provided 
justice  and  truth  be  made  the   objects  of  re- 
search, is  not  only  reasonable,  but  is  a  prime 
duty. 
}Vhat  is  the  second  natural  law  of  Intelligence? 


40  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

It  is  this :  The  different  manifestations  of 
man  are  inexphcable,  on  the  supposition  of  one 
simple  cause;  in  other  words:  Man  in  his  na- 
ture possesses  determinate,  specific,  and  dis- 
tinct causes  of  his  different  modes  of  feehng 
and  thinking. 

Hoio  do  they ^  ivho  admit  the  entity  self,  ex- 
plain man's  different  kinds  of  knowledge'? 

By  supposing  this  agent,  self,  endowed  with 
a  number  of  primary  faculties;  they  also  rec- 
ognize various  conditions,  as  necessary  to  the 
exhibition  of  mental  phenomena. 

What  is  the  usual  division  of  the  primary 
faculties  of  the  agent^  self? 

It  is  into  Understanding  and  Will;  a  di- 
vision which  has  been  recognized  from  remote 
antiquity,  and  differently  entitled — Head  and 
Heart,  >Spirit  and  Flesh,  Intellect  and  Moral 
Faculties,  Modes  of  thinking  and  Modes  of 
Feeling. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word^  Will? 

To  Will  various  meanings  are  attached. 
Philosophers  commonly  understand  by  it,  all 
desires  collectively,  and  all  degrees  in  any 
particular  desire,  from  simple  inclination  up  to 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  41 

passion.  Hence  they  speak  of  weak  and  of 
strong  wills ;  and  farther,  of  good  and  of  bad 
wills  also. 

Will,  again,  sometimes  denotes  the  desire 
which  predominates.  Feeling  one  incHnation, 
if  another  arise  and  overcome  the  former,  the 
second  is  called  Will. 

There  is  still  another  kind  of  Will,  which 
may  be  called  enlightened,  because  it  implies 
a  desire  approved  of  by  intelligence. 

Iswill^  as  designating  desires jHot  confined  to 
the  faculties  which  experience  Sentiments^ 

No;  for,  that  every  faculty,  being  active, 
desires,  is  a  perfectly  general  proposition,  and 
therefore  includes  such  faculties  as  procure 
knowledge  also. 

Seeing  that  the  philosophical  nomenclature 
is  so  faulty,  and  that  those  faculties  that  know, 
desire  or  manifest  Will,  would  it  not  he  well  to 
o-ive  a  distinguishing  title  to  all  the  powers 
that  merehj  excite  feelings  without  acquiring 
any  knowledge? 

Certainly  it  would.  And  as  the  faculties 
which  do  not  know,  produce  especially  what 

are  called  aftections,  affective  faculties  will  ac- 

4* 


42  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

curately   express   their  distlnguisbing    nature. 
If  hat  knows^  or  takes  cognizance  of^  tke  af- 
fective 'powers') 

The  Iiilellect.  To  know,  is  the  peculiar 
and  proper  character  of  tlie  faculties  which  en- 
ter into  its  constitution. 

IIow  is  the  Intellect  or  the  Understanding 
divided') 

It  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  ])ossessed  of 
certain  attributes  entitled    faculties,   such   as 
Attention,  Perception,  Memory,  Imagination, 
and  Judgment.      Occasionally  the  Understand- 
ing has  been  said  to  know,  according  to  certain 
forms  or  categories.      Kant,  for  instance,  ob- 
serves that  the  Spirit  or  Intellect   must  repre- 
sent all  it  knows  in  space  and  time. 
How  is  Jltleniion  defined? 
Philoso])hers  have  considered  Attention  to 
be  the  primary  faculty  which  acts  in  the  acqui- 
sition of  every  sort  of  knowledge. 

Can  Jlttentio7i  be  truly   esteemed  a  primary 
faculty  of  the  mind'? 

If  it  be,  it  behoves  philosophers  to  show  the 
causes  of  its  various  degrees  and  different  kinds 
of  activity.     For  one  may  manifest  a  peculiar 


INTELLECTUAL  LAWS.         43 

sort  of  Attention  strongly,  another  weakly,  and 
be  altogether  incapable  of  exhibiting  a  third. 
Now  all  these  facts  are  incompatible  with  the 
philosophic  idea  of  Attention  being  a  primary 
faculty. 

W  hat  is  Jlttention  then? 

Attention  is  the  effect  of  the  entity  self  arous- 
ed by  the  active  state  of  the  affective  and  in- 
tellectual faculties.  Its  strength  is  proportion- 
ed to  the  degree  of  energy  of  the  acting  pow- 
ers, that  is,  of  the  powers  which  attend. 

Can  ice,  on  this  showing,  explain,  why, 
ivithout  Attention,  no  one  can  succeed  in  any 
art  or  science? 

Readily.  Attention  is  synonymous  with 
activity,  and  certainly  success  is  impossible 
without  activity  of  the  respective  faculties. 

How  is  Perception  defined? 

Perception,  or  Consciousness,  according  to 
philosophers,  is  that  faculty  which  takes  cog- 
nizance of  impressions,  whether  external  or 
internal.  Each  of  these  two  orders  of  impress- 
sions  includes  many  species,  which  may  be 
perceived  separately.  We  may  hear  and  not 
see,  see  and  not  hear;  we  may  perceive,  or  be 


44  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

conscious  of,  the  forms  of  objects,  and  not  of 
their  dimensions  and  colors;  perceive  the  har- 
mony of  colors,  and  not  of  tones;  be  conscious 
of  attachment  and  not  of  fear,  of  pride  and  not 
of  benevolence;  and  so  on.  Knowledge  of  any 
impression  whatever,  is  Perception;  there  are 
consequently  as  many  kinds  of  perception  as 
of  faculties  which  furnish  impressions. 

What  general  title  may  be  given  to  the  or- 
gamc  conditions  which  procure  impressions? 

The  general  term.  Sense.  Internal  as  well 
as  external  senses  might  then  be  spoken  of 
with  propriety;  and  perception — a  common 
quality,  would  appear  stripped  of  all  pretensions 
to  rank  as  a  primary  faculty  of  mind. 
What  is  Memory? 

Memory  is,  by  many  philosophers,  regarded 
as  a  fundamental  power,  but  it  is  in  truth  noth- 
ing more  than  the  repetition  by  intellectual 
faculties  of  previously  received  impressions. 
The  species  of  memory  therefore  are  as  nu- 
merous as  the  faculties  which  know.  The 
different  kinds  of  memory,  and  the  various  de- 
grees of  activity  exhibited  by  each,  are  inex- 
plicable by  the  hypothesis  of  a  simple  cause; 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  45 

as  inexplicable  indeed  as  are  the  different  spe- 
cies of  knowledge  on  such  a  supposition. 

Hoio  comes  it  that  attention  strengthens 
Memory^ 

Attention  and  Memory  are  alike  effects  of 
an  active  state  of  the  faculties  which  know. 
Energetic  actions  of  these,  accompanied  by 
clear  perceptions,  leave  strong  impressions, 
which  are  afterwards  reproduced  with  more 
ease  than  such  as  have  been  so  weak  and  tran- 
sient as  to  be  but  httle  noted.  Moreover,  the 
faculty  which  takes  cognizance  of  the  phenom- 
enal w^orld,  exercises  an  influence  over  the 
powders  w  hich  know,  and  by  exciting,  better 
enables  them  to  repeat  their  functions,  and 
thus  strengthens  memory. 

What  is  the  mental  phenomenon,  entitled 
Reminiscence'^ 

It  is  the  consciousness  of  the  repetition  of 
any  sensation  or  previously  acquired  know- 
ledge. 

Is  Reminiscence  a  primary  faculty? 

No,  it  is  but  an  effect  of  a  repetition  of  its 
function  by  that  faculty  which  takes  cognizance 
of  the  phenomenal  world — Eventuality. 


46  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

What  is  understood  by  Imagination? 

Imagination  is  a  word  which  is  variously  in- 
terpreted. Sometimes  it  is  used  to  designate 
a  faculty  that  makes  man  act  spontaneously, 
and  causes  him  to  invent  in  any  way.  A  me- 
chanician invents  ingenious  machines,  a  musi- 
cian composes  musical  pieces,  a  mathematician 
discovers  new  problems, — all  is  done  by  Im- 
agination. Sometimes  the  word  denotes  an 
exalted  and  peculiar  manner  of  feeling,  and  in 
this  sense,  Imagination  is  a  sentiment  or  dis- 
tinct affective  faculty,  capable  of  being  com- 
bined with  all  the  other  faculties. 

Is  there  any  primary  faoulty  of  Imagination 
taken  as  synonymous  with  the  capacity  of  Inven- 
tion'? 

None.  It  is  only  a  consequence  of  the'  in- 
tellectual combined  with  the  affective  faculties, 
each  in  a  high  state  of  activity. 

Is  there  any  primary  faculty  of  Association? 

Many  philosophers  speak  of  such  a  funda- 
mental power,  but  it  is  a  mere  effect  of  sever- 
al distinct  and  varied  causes;  in  other  words, 
the  actions  of  the  primary  faculties  are  associ- 
ated. Each  being  active,  excites  and  acts 
along  with  one  or  two,  or  more,  of  the  others. 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  47 

TIow  is  association  among  the  intellectual 
faculties  stijled? 

Association  of  Ideas. 

The  mode  of  action^  called^  Association^  how- 
ever^ is  not  confined  to  the  intellectual  faculties'^ 

It  may  be  observed  among  the  affective  also, 
and  between  the  affective  and  intellectual  pow- 
ers reciprocally.  The  mutual  influence  of  the 
faculties  is  quite  general.  Any  one  whatso- 
ever in  a  state  of  activity  may  excite  any  one 
or  any  number  of  others. 

How  is  Judgment  defined   by  philosophers'^ 

It  is  considered  as  a  primitive  faculty,  which 
compares  perceived  impressions,  finds  them 
harmonious  or  discordant,  and  approves  or 
disapproves  of  them.  But  Judgment  is  in  fact 
a  qualitive  mode  of  action  of  the  intellectual 
faculties.  Species  of  knowledge  act  oh  the 
sentient  being  in  conformity  with  certain  laws, 
which  however  admit  of  modifications  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  Now  the  faculties  that  know  their 
appropriate  impressions  respectively,  are  affec- 
ted in  a  manner  which  they  approve  or  disap- 
prove, and  in  this  way  may  be  said  to  judge. 
Judgment,  consequently,  is  only  the  announce- 


48  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

ment  of  the  mode  of  being  affected  by  im- 
pressions received  and  known.  There  are 
consequently  as  many  kinds  of  Judgment  as 
species  of  knowlege  or  faculties  which  know; 
there  is  a  Judgment  in  forms,  another  in  col- 
ors, a  third  in  tones,  and  so  on;  and  Judgment 
individually  depends  on  the  special  powders 
which  appreciate  forriis,  colors,  tones,  &c. 

Can  Judgment  be  correctly  spoken  of  as 
good  or  bad? 

The  faculties  are  subject  to  certain  laws,  and 
their  actions  are  either  perfect  or  imperfect. 
Good  Judgment  is  the  attendant  of  the  first, 
bad  Judgment  of  the  second,  state.  He  who 
listens  to  music,  perceives  the  harmony  of  the 
tones,  or  he  does  not;  and  is  thus  possessed 
or  is  not  possessed  of  a  musical  judgment. 
He  who  has  the  faculties  which  are  necessary 
to  appreciate  tones  in  their  greatest  state  of 
perfection,  has  the  best  Judgment  in  music, 
and  he  who  has  them  the  least  complete,  has 
the  worst  Judgment  in  this  particular.  It  is 
the  same  in  regard  to  every  other  kind  of  know- 
ledge. 

Jlre  the  laws,  according  to  which  different 
species  of  knowledge  have  place,  arbitrary? 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  49 

By  no  means ;  they  present  all  the  charac- 
ters of  natural  laws.  They  inhere  in  human 
nature,  are  essentially  the  same  in  all  places 
and  at  all  times,  and  harmonize  with  the  whole 
of  the  vegetative  and  moral  laws  of  man.  Be 
it  observed,  however,  that  it  is  the  essence 
aloneof  the  faculties  which  is  pervaded  by  this 
universal  regularity.  Modifications  of  the  pow- 
ers occur  constantly  and  in  great  variety. 
Some  actions,  results  of  their  activity,  may 
be  considered  as  good  and  excellent  at  one 
time,  and  bad  and  reprehensible  at  another. 
Certain  kinds  of  knowledge,  certain  ideas, 
may  prevail  at  particular  periods,  even  errors 
may  gain  accredence  and  be  in  vogue,  but 
truth  and  essential  excellence  will  not  therefore 
be  annihilated ;  sooner  or  later,  by  one  or  an- 
other, they  will  be  felt,  and  be  made  supreme. 

Are  there  not  certain  Judgments  which  are 
universally  accounted  good  or  bad? 

Yes.  All  civihzed  men  would  say  of  him, 
who  should  feed  on  loathsome  articles  which 
could  not  nourish  his  body,  that  he  had  a  bad 
taste.  In  the  same  w^ay,  he  who  admits  ideas 
which  are  mutually  contradictory,  will  be  by 
5 


50  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

all  accounted  to  have  a  bad  Judgment.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  effects  of  certain  intellect- 
ual operations  will  always  meet  approval. 
The  music  of  Handel  and  of  Mozart,  the  color- 
ing of  Titian,  the  sculpture  of  the  old  Greeks, 
and  the  Christian  system  of  morals,  will  secure 
approbation,  so  long  as  the  feehng  for  the 
melody  and  harmony  of  sounds,  capacity  to 
perceive  color, power  to  appreciate  fine  forms, 
and  admiration  of  virtue,  belong  to,  ajid  form 
constituents  in,  the  nature  of  man. 

Is  reason  a  fundamental  power  of  the  mind'^ 

No,  this  term  indicates  the  functions  of 
Comparison  and  Causality  severally  or  in  com- 
bination. 

What  is  the  aim  of  reason^ 

Reason  is  given  to  direct  the  functions  of 
all  the  other  special  powers  of  the  mind,  and  to 
bring  them  into  harmony;  without  being  guided 
by  reason  every  faculty  is  liable  to  errors. 

Since  reason  is  essential  in  preventing  the  er- 
rors of  the  other  faculties  is  it  free  from  erring'? 
Reason  acts  according  to  determinate  princi- 
ples,but  it  does  not  furnish  the  objects  on  which 
it  operates,  hence  it  will  err  each  time  when 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  51 

the  premises  or  objects  of  its  activity  are  not 
truly  furnished. 

Since  many  mistakes  have  thus  been  made  in 
regard  to  thepoioers  of  the  mind,  how  can  we, 
by  reasoning,  arrive  at  a  knoivledge  of  its  spe- 
cial faculties? 

A  faculty  will,  by  reason,  be  recognized  as 
special,  1st,  when  it  exists  in  one  species  of 
animal  and  not  in  another. 

2d,  When  its  manifestations  are  not  in 
proportion  to  those  of  the  other  faculties,  nei- 
ther in  the  different  sexes  nor  in  the  same  in- 
dividual. 

3d,  When  its  manifestations  may  be  singly 
healthy  or  singly  diseased. 

4th,  When  its  manifestations  do  not  appear 
nor  disappear  simultaneously  with  those  of  the 
other  powers. 

5th,  When  it  can  alone,  or  singly  repose. 

6th,  When  it  is  transmitted  in  a  distinct 
manner  from  parents  to  children. 

The  same  mode  of  proof  appHes  to  the  spe- 
cial affective,  as  well  as  the  special  intellectu- 
al, faculties.  Observation  and  induction  must 
lead  to  the  knowledge  of  both. 


52  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

How  is  the  existence  of  any  special  faculty 
whatever  to  he  proved  by  observation^ 

By  the  recognition  of  a  relation  between 
special  manifestation  and  particular  organic  ap- 
paratus. 

What  are  the  affective  faculties  of  man7 

f  Desire  of  life. 

*  Desire  of  Meat  and  Drink. 

1.  Sense  of  Destroying. 

2.  Sense  of  Amativeness. 

3.  Sense  of  Parental  love,  or  Love  of  Off- 
spring. 

4.  Sense  of  Attachment. 

5.  Sense  of  Habitation. 

6.  Sense  of  Courage. 

7.  Sense  of  Secresy. 

8.  Sense  of  Acquiring  or  Collecting. 

9.  Sense  of  Constructing. 

10.  Sense  of  Cautiousness. 

1 1 .  Sense  of  Approbation  and  Notoriety. 

12.  Sense  of  Self-esteem. 

13.  Sense  of  Benevolence. 

14.  Sense  of  Reverence. 

15.  Sense  of  Firmness  and  Perseverance. 
IG.  Sense  of  Conscientiousness. 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  53 

17.  Sense  of  Hope. 

18.  Sense  of  Marvellousness. 

19.  Sense  of  the  Ideal  and  Perfect. 

20.  Sense  of  Mirth  and  Humor. 

21 .  Sense  of  Imitation. 

What  are  the  Intellectual  faculties  of  man9 

1.  Five  External  Senses  which  convey  to 
him  peculiar  impressions  of  the  external  world. 

2.  A  faculty-  which  personifies  these  impres- 
sions, and  presents  them  as  separate  from  the 
organs  of  external  sense.  This  faculty  seems 
to  procure  him  notions  of  individual  existence. 

3.  Particular  faculties  which  know  the  Phy- 
sical Quahties  of  objects,  as  Configuration, 
Size,  Weight,  and  Color. 

4.  A  particular  faculty  which  knows  what 
passes  in  objects  and  their  quahties,  that  is, 
which  cognizes  the  phenomenal  world.  The 
same  faculty  seems  also  to  turn  into  knowledge 
all  sensations  felt  in  the  body;  as  pain,  fatigue, 
the  necessity  of  difterent  evacuations,  cold, 
heat,  and,  lastly,  the  activity  of  all  the  affec- 
tive powers. 

5.  Particular  faculties  which  conceive  no- 
tions of  the  LocaHties  of  objects,  of  Time  or 

5* 


64  NATURAL    LAWS  OF  MAN. 

duration,  whether  of  objects,  or  of  phenomena 
and  their  succession;  of  Melody;  of  Number, 
whether  of  objects,  qualities,  phenomena,  or 
tones;  of  Order,  whether  in  objects,  in  phys- 
ical qualities,  in  phenomena,  in  localities,  in 
succession,  or  in  number. 

6.  A  particular  faculty  which  cognizes  An- 
alogy or  Difference,  Similitude  or  Dissimili- 
tude, and  Identity,  and  establishes  harmony; 
and  another  which  appreciates  the  Causes  of 
objects  and  of  phenomena. 

7.  A  particular  faculty  which  knows  and 
presides  over  the  signs  of  artificial  language. 

What  is  understood  by  the  Passions,  and 
by  the  Affections. 

These  words  denote  modes  of  action  of  the 
primary  faculties.  Passion  expresses  the  high- 
est degree  of  their  activity.  Affection  the 
mere  general  mode  of  their  being  affected. 

Then  neither  the  Affections  nor  the  Passions 
are  primary  powers  of  the  mind? 

The  preceding  reply  authorizes  a  negative. 

How  may  the  Affections   be  subdivided? 

1st,  Into  modes  of  quality  and  modes  of 
quantity;  in  other  words,  the  primary  faculties 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  55 

may  procure   modified    sensations,  and  they 
may  be  more  or  less  active. 

2d,  Affections  are  gencraZ,  common^  or 
special;  that  is,  certain  modes  of  being  affect- 
ed belong  to  the  whole  of  the  primary  powers, 
to  several,  to  one  only,  and  to  each  individu- 
ally. Thus,  Pleasure  and  Pain  are  general 
affections.  Memory  belongs  to  the  intellect- 
ual faculties  in  common,  and  Compassion  is  a 
special  affection  of  the  faculty  of  Benevo- 
lence. 

3d,  Affections  are  simple  or  compound; 
that  is  to  say,  they  result  from  the  individual 
activity  ol  one  faculty,  or  from  the  simultane- 
ous activity  of  several.  For  instance.  Fear 
is  a  simple  affection  of  the  faculty  of  Circum- 
spection; Shame,  a  compound  affection,  of 
the  faculties  of  Justice  and  Love  of  Approba- 
tion. 

4th,  Affections  are  agreeable  or  disagreea- 
ble. 

6th,  Affections  are  common  to  animals  and 
man,  or  they  are  proper  and  peculiar  to  man, 
as  well  as  the  faculties  themselves  which  are 
their  causes. 


56  NATURAL   LAWS    OF    MAN. 

When  the  Passions  are  spoken  of^  why  do 
mankind  generally  think  of  sensual  pleasures 
and  inferior  sentiments^  as  love  of  notoriety^ 
pride,  and  self -inter  estedness'^ 

Because  the  affective  powers  in  general, 
and  those  in  particular,  in  which  these  inchna- 
tions  inhere,  are  commonly  very  energetic 
among  men,  and  because  their  activity  is  ex- 
tremely dangerous  to  the  peace  and  well-be- 
ing of  society. 

Concluding  from  what  has  gone  before,  how 
are  the  functions,  designated  as  primary  facul- 
ties in  the  schools  of  philosophy,  to  be  regard- 
ed9 

Only  as  effects,  or  as  modes  of  action  in  re- 
gard to  quantity  and  quality  of  the  mind's  fun- 
damental powers. 

A7id  what  is  to  be  thought  of  the  philosophic 
nomenclature? 

That  it  is  extremely  defective.  Every  ex- 
pression has  several  significations,  and  none 
designates  a  cause  or  primary  faculty,  but 
merely  an  effect  or  action. 

What  conclusion  is  to  he  drawn  from  this 
position? 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  67 

That  the  ideas  of  the  schools  are  inexact. 
Ideas  and  the  signs  that  express  them  are  in- 
timately related.  Ideas  precede,  and  as  they 
are  precise,  signs  follow  correspondingly  nu- 
merous and  exact. 

The  philosophical  nomenclature  requires  a 
reform,  then? 

It  stands  in  great  need  of  it,  as  well  as  phi- 
losophical principles  themselves. 

In  remodelling  and  determining  the  nomen- 
clature of  the  philosophy  of  man,  v)hat  course 
would  he  proper  to  pursue? 

It  would  be  necessary  to  assume  signs  to 
express, 

1st,  Primary  faculties. 

2d,  Qualitive  modes  of  action  of  the  fac- 
ilities. 

3d,  Degrees  of  activity  or  quantitive  modes 
of  the  faculties. 

4th,  Modes  of  several  faculties  simultaneous- 
ly active. 

6th,  Different  actions  resulting  whether 
from  primary  faculties  simply  active,  from 
their  modes,  of  their  mutual    influence. 

To  illustrate  this  procedure  take  Benevo- 


68  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

lence. — This  sign  denotes  a  primary  faculty  of 
the  mind;  Compassion  designates  a  qualitive 
mode  of  the  power;  Great,  Much,  Little, 
Weak,  quantitive  modes  of  the  same;  Equity 
its  simultaneous  activity  with  justice,  the  infe- 
rior sentiments  being  subordinate;  Christian 
Charity,  its  union  with  the  whole  of  the  pri- 
mary powers  besides,  in  a  perfect  state  of  har- 
mony. 

What  generic  i.ame  may  he  aptly  used  to 
express  every  function  of  the  affective  and  in- 
tellectual faculties? 

Sensation  will  designate  any  degree  of  ac- 
tivity or  other  mode  of  every  faculty.  Every 
perceived  impression  is  a  species  of  Sensa- 
tion. 

How  do  Sensations  become  Conceptions  or 
Ideas? 

This  happens  by  Intellect  representing  to  it- 
self Sensation.  One  may  perceive  the  sen- 
sation of  hunger  internally  and  without  saying, 
'I  am  hungry;'  knowledge  of  the  existence  of 
sensations  constitutes  Conceptions  or  Ideas. 

What  signification  is  attached  to  the  word 
Idea? 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  59 

This  term  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
discussion.  Etymologically  considered,  it 
signifies,  image  or  figure;  but  in  this  accepta- 
tion there  are  not  many  Ideas;  odors,  tastes, 
colors,  are  all  excluded.  Besides,  by  the  do- 
minant philosophy  of  the  present  day,  and  in 
opposition  to  Aristotle,  impressions,  and  not 
images,  are  maintained  to  be  perceived  by  the 
Soul.  Several  philosophers  have  also  extend- 
ed the  meaning  of  the  word  Idea,  and  made  it 
to  signify  Knowledge  of  all  external  impres- 
sions. But  when  the  etymological  significa- 
tion is  once  abandoned,  there  can  be  no  reason 
for  not  calling  knowledge,  both  of  external 
and  internal  impressions.  Idea.  One  might 
then  have  an  Idea  of  hunger,  of  fear,  and  of 
anger,  as  well  as  of  color,  sound,  figure,  or 
dimension. 

What  is  the  third  natural  laio  of  Intelligence') 

It  is  as  follows:  the  knowledge  of  man's 
mental  nature  may  become  as  exact  and  posi- 
tive as  that  of  his  physical  constitution. 

What  are  the  principal  points  to  be  noted^ 
touching  man's  mental  nature'? 

They  are,  1st,  The  primary  faculties  that 
enter  mto  its  position. 


60  NATURAL    LAWS    OP    MAN. 

2d,  The  origin  of  these. 

3d,  The  fixed  laws  of  their  functions. 

4th,  The  causes  of  modifications  of  their 
functions. 

5th,  The  moral  and  religious  laws. 

What  is  the  true  method  of  proving  the  txis' 
tence  of  the  primary  faculties  which  constitute 
man's  mental  part'? 

It  is  still  observation  and  induction.  Phi- 
losphers  have  long  disputed  upon  the  special 
faculties  of  the  human  mind.  From  time  to 
time,  a  greater  or  smaller  number  has  been  ad- 
mitted, but  all  that  has  yet  been  written  or 
said  has  not  been  apphcable  beyond  the  limited 
sphere  of  individual  conviction.  When  by 
observation  the  relations  which  subsist  between 
the  cerebral  apparatus  and  the  special  powers 
of  the  mind  shall  have  been  demonstrated,  the 
philosophy  of  man  will  become  a  positive  and 
an  invariable  science. 

Physiology  is  therefore  useful  and  aidant  in 
the  philosophy  of  man? 

Physiology  and  the  Philosophy  of  mind  are 
two  sciences  inseparable.  They  are  mutually 
accompletive. 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  61 

fVhat  are  the  characteristics  of  exact  knoioledge? 

Exact  knowledge  is  characterized  in  the 
same  way  as  the  natural  laws.  That  which 
is,  is,  has  been,  and  will  be,  demonstrable  for 
ever.  It  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  be 
convinced  that  truth  and  exact  knowledge  of 
every  kind  are,  and  must  be  in  harmony. 

What  is  the  origin  of  the  primary  faculties 
of  man? 

They  are  innate  in  his  constitution. 

Has  this  truth  been  long  known? 

From  the  remotest  antiquity.  The  ancients 
even  went  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  Ideas  were 
innate. 

What  then  is  actually  innate  in  man? 

The  essence  of  the  primary  powders,  various 
capacities  of  activity, and  pecuHar  modifications 
of  function,  according  to  sex  or  individuals. 

Have  the  faculties  hecn^  by  all  the  schools^ 
considered  as  innate? 

No;  many  philosophers  have  maintained, 
that  man  comes  into  the  world  a  tabula  rasa^  a 
smooth  and  fair  surface, and  that  all  his  capaci- 
ties and  actions  are  eflects  of  external  circum- 
stances. 

What  are  the  chief  extraneous  circumstances 
6 


62  '   NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

tchich  have  been   believed  to    be  the  causes  of 
man^s  actions'? 

Wan]t,  Society,  Opportunity,  Climate, 
Food,  and,  above  all.  Education. 

What  is  the  extent  of  the  influence  of  extra- 
neous circumstances'? 

They  are  often  necessary  to  permit  the  ex- 
hibition of  natural  dispositions,  but  they  can 
by  no  possibihty  produce  any  faculty;  some- 
times too  they  develope  innate  capacity,  and 
exercise  the  faculties.  Further,  Education 
may  give  a  determinate  bent  to  the  innate 
powers;  and  make  them  ehcit  specific  actions. 
— A  Mussulman  and  a  Christian  are  both  de- 
vout from  the  same  innate  feehng,  but  the  for- 
mer may  think  it  his  duty  to  make  at  least 
once  in  his  life  a  prilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and 
the  latter  to  sing  hymns  in  praise  of  God. 

How  has  the  innateness  of  their  simple  disposi- 
tions^ or  of  their  effects— actions  ^been  explained? 

Their  cause  has  been  sought,  sometimes  in 
the  presence  of  immaterial  agents,  named  Spir- 
its or  Souls,  sometimes  in  organization;  eitlrer 
generally,  or  in  that  of  the  abdominal  and  thora- 
cic viscera,  of  the  external  senses,  and  of  the 
brain  especially. 


INTELLECTUAL    LAWS.  63 

IIoio  does  determinate  knowledge  originate'^ 

From  the  innate  primary  capacities  which 
know,  and  the  impressions  which  are  known. 

Do  all  possess  the  innate  primary  faculties  in 
equal  degrees  of  activity'^ 

No;  experience  proves  that  their  energy  va- 
ries extremely  in  different  individuals. 

What  is  the  cause  of  this  diversity  of  endow- 
ment? 

It  inheres  partly  in  man,  and  partly  belongs 
to  extraneous  circumstances. 

What  is  meant  by  an  universal  genius? 

He  who  could  appreciate  and  acquire  tho- 
roughly every  species  and  variety  of  know- 
ledge, would  be  an  universal  genius.  Genius 
does  not  signify  a  special  power  of  mind,  but 
the  highest  degree  of  activity  of  any  intellec- 
tual faculty.  Now  although  we  may  conceive 
a  being  possessed  of  all  the  powers  in  their  best 
and  most  energetic  state,  it  is  not  probable  that 
any  such  has  ever  visited,  or  is  ever  Hkely  to 
visit,  the  world. 

Is  it  possible  or  probable,  that  mankind  may^ 
in  some  future  age,  agree  in  their  manners  of 
feeling  and  thinking? 


<54  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

As  men  are  constituted  at  the  present  time, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  they  cannot  agree, 
even  upon  the  essentials  of  their  mental  func- 
tions, or  of  the  judgments  they  pronounce. 
Harmony  and  unanimity,  however,  as  essen- 
tials are  concerned,  will  be  possible,  nay  will 
prevail  whenever  the  natural  laws  are  recog- 
nized as  the  rules  of  conduct,  and  their  com- 
mands are  enforced  and  obeyed.  But  man- 
kind can  never  accord  on  the  modifications  of 
their  affective  and  intellectual  faculties. 

When  we  perceive  that  the  corporeal  and  in- 
tellectual parts  of  man  are  governed  by  invari' 
able  laws^  can  we  suppose  that  his  moral  part,  the 
most  noble  of  all,  is  abandoned  to  chance — 
abstracted  from  the  influence  of  all  natural  law^ 

To  think  so  is  a  grievous  error, — an  error 
that  has  been  the  source  of  many  of  the  evils 
that  afflict  humanity.  Man's  moral  nature  is 
regulated  by  determinate  laws.  So  vast  is 
the  importance  and  so  great  and  salutary  the 
influence,  of  this  proposition,  that  it  should  be- 
come aa  article  of  universal  belief  among  man^ 
kind- 


SECTION  III. 

OF    THE    MORAL    LAWS. 

Is  man  naturally  a  moral  being^ — that  is, 
a  being  who^  by  his  oton  nature,  views  his  ac- 
tions in  relation  to  duty  and  justice? 

Yes:  there  is  in  his  constitution  an  inherent 
sentiment,  entitled  Moral  Conscience,  which 
produces  such  an  effect. 

Are  the  moral  precepts  of  all  men  alike'^ 

No;  for  the  act  which  is  considered  just  in 
one  country,  is  often  looked  on  as  unjust  in 
another. 

What  is  the  cause  of  this  diversity  of  deci- 
sion'^ 

The  sentiment  of  conscientiousness  does  not 
determine  that  which  is  just  or  unjust,  it  only- 
feels  the  necessity  of  being  just.  The  major- 
ity of  mankind  take  for  granted  whatever  they 
are  told  is  right,  and  assume  as  just,  the  pre- 
cepts to  which  they  have  been  accustomed 
6* 


66  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

from  infancy.  Among  the  few  who  think,  In- 
tellect determines  Justice;  but  the  conclusions 
are  still  influenced  by  the  general  mental  fi-ame. 

How  may  conscience  he  divided') 

Into  Absolute  and  Individual.  The  first  is 
Conscience  as  it  ought  to  be  fcr  all  men ;  the 
second,  as  its  name  implies,  is  the  Conscience 
of  individuals. 

In  what  does  the  Absolute  Conscience  of 
man  consist? 

In  the  sentiment  of  conscientiousness  com- 
bined with  the  whole  of  the  faculties  peculiar 
to  man,  those  common  to  the  human  kind  and 
animals  being  held  in  subjection. 

In  what  does  Individual  Conscience  consist? 

It  results  from  the  sentiment  of  conscien- 
tiousness combined  with  the  other  faculties  of 
individuals.  He,  therefore,  who  possesses 
the  superior  sentiments  in  great  activity,  will 
esteem  those  notions  and  actions  as  unjust, 
which  another,  whose  inferior  feelings  are 
strong,  and  superior  weak,  w-ould  look  upon  as 
just.  Intellect,  it  thus  appears,  is  corrupted 
or  swayed  by  the  affective  powers,  and  ad- 
mits as  just  whatever  these  recognize  as  agree- 
able. 


MORAL    LAWS.  67 

Can  we  trust  to  the  Individual  ConscieU' 
ces  of  mankind. 

No;  it  is  impossible.  Many  feel  very 
slightly  the  desire  and  necessity  of  being  just, 
and  seldom  or  never  think  of  examining  their 
actions  with  relation  lo  moral  rectitude.  Be- 
sides, people  are  frequently  misled  in  their 
moral  judgments  by  the  influence  of  other  feel- 
ings ;  and  many  things  which  the  standard  of 
Absolute  Conscience  pronounces  unjust,  pass 
for  just  when  estimated  by  individual  manners 
of  judging. 

Ought  not  the  moral  laios  therefore  to  be 
studied^  determined^  and  proposed  as  obliga- 
tory'? 

Certainly;  Conscience  should  be   Positive, 

Is  there  any  difference  between  Positive  and 
Jlhsolute  Conscience^ 

There  ought  to  be  none.  In  the  world, 
however,  Positive  Conscience,  or  the  Law, 
has  most  commonly  been  a  product  of  the 
Individual  Consciences  of  legislators. 

Has  the  J^atural  Moral  Laio,  or  Absolute 
Conscience^  any  distinguishing  characters? 

It  has  all  those  of  the  natural  laws  generally.* 

*  See  page  4. 


6S  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

Have  men  any  right  to  make  moral  lawsl 

They  have  none,  any  more  than  to  fabricate 
laws  to  regulate  then*  vegetative  and  intellectu- 
al functions.  They  cannot  change  the  law  of 
propagation,  nor  of  alimentation,  nor  of  any 
other  functional  operation;  they  can  form  no 
conception  of  an  object  without  dimensions  and 
figure;  they  cannot  conceive  an  effect  without 
a  cause;  neither  can  they  love  pain,  nor  ap- 
prove internally  of  that  they  perceive  to  be  bad 
or  immoral. 

Who  made  the  moral  laws  of  man? 

The  same  Great  Cause  that  traced  the  laws 
of  man's  physical  and  intellectual  parts  also 
instituted  laws  for  the  regulation  of  his  moral 
nature — God,  the  Author  of  the  universe. 

How  does  the  Creator  make  known  or  reveal 
his  laws? 

To  inform  man  of  his  enactments,  God  has 
endowed  him  with  understanding,  to  observe 
and  to  learn  those  that  implicate  his  physical 
and  intellectual  natures;  and  has  implanted  in 
his  interior,  sentiments  which  make  him  feel 
the  moral  laws. 

Is  tJiere  not  another  source  whence  knowledge 
of  Moral  Laws  is  derived? 


MORAL    LAWS.  69 

Yes,  Revelation;  that  is,  knowledge  com- 
municated by  God  to  man  in  a  supernatural 
manner. 

What  are  the  advantages  of  Revelation^ 

It  is  chiefly  advantageous  as  it  regulates  man's 
uncertain  notions  of  his  Creator,  and  of  his  du- 
ties universally. 

Can  man^  in  the  study  of  his  vegetative  and 
intellectual  natures,  acquire  a  greater  quantity 
of  knowledge  than  God  has  revealed  to  him? 

There  can  be  no  doubt  of  it. 

Can  the  revelation  of  Moral  Laws  change, 
or  annihilate  the  laws  of  the  vegetative  and  in- 
tellectual functions^ 

To  say  it  can,  would  be  absurd,  as  putting 
God  in  contradiction  with  himself;  for  the  God 
who  reveals  the  morcd  duties  and  the  God  who 
creates  the  physical  and  intellectual  functions 
are  one  and  the  same. 

Are  the  advocates  of  the  natural  laws  Athe- 
ists? 

On  the  contrary,  they  entertain  the  most 
noble,  the  most  pure,  ideas  of  God;  the}^  never 
suppose  him  in  contradiction  with  himself;  they 
regard  him  as  the  Impai'tial  Parent  of  the  uni- 


70  NATURAL    LAWS  OF    MAN. 

verse,  who  treats  all  his  children  with  equal 
kindness,  who  applies  his  laws  without  vari- 
ation, and  without  any  distinction  of  persons. 

Jlre  the  advocates  of  the  natural  laws  change- 
able and  arbitrary  in  their  judgments'?- 

No;  they  recognize  but  one  law  for  all  men, 
— for  the  teacher  and  the  taught,  the  govenor 
and  the  governed.  They  have  one  determi- 
nate and  invariable  standard  for  their  rule  of 
conduct. 

Jlre  the  disciples  of  the  natural  latvs  hostile  to 
the  Christian  code  of  moraVmj'? 

No;  there  they  find  traces  of  wisdom  truly 
divine;  the  better  they  know  its  precepts,  the 
more  do  they  admire.  Indeed  they  cannot  do 
otherwise  than  approve,  for  they  see  that  true 
Christian  morality  is  the  morality  of  nature, 
announced  in  apositive manner;  they,  therefore, 
hope  it  will  speedily  be  repuriOed  from  the  pa- 
gan, profitless,  and  superstitious  observances 
with  which  its  excellence  has  been  contamina- 
ted, and  its  lustre  obscured. 

What  is  the  summary  of  tJie  natural  laio  of 
morality  9 

The  faculties  proper  to  man  constitute   his 


MORAL    LAWS.  71 

moral  nature;  whatever,  therefore,  is  in  con- 
formity to  the  whole  of  these  is  morally  good, 
whatever  is  in  opposition  to  them  is  morally 
bad. 

What  are  the  principal  faculties  which  are 
peculiar  to  man? 

Reverence,  Marvellousness,  Ideality,  Caus- 
ality, and  in  a  certain  degree  Benevolence, 
Justice  and  Hope. 

Man's  powers   being  innate   do    they    act 
irresistibly? 

God  in  giving  powers  does  not  inflict  the 
necessity  of  their  acting. 

How  far  are  the  actions  of  JVIan  to  he  called 
necessary^  and  how  far  are  they  free? 

They  are  necessary  as  far  as  there  is  no  ef- 
fect without  cause  and  as  they  depend  on  mo- 
tives. They  are  free  as  far  as  they  are  under 
the  control  of  other  powers,  and  whenever  a 
choice  among  the  motives  takes  place. 
Is  the  liberty  of  man  unlimited? 

No,  it  is  subject  to  conditions. 
Which  are  the  necessary  conditions  of  free- 
dom? 

1 .  Intellect  to  make  a  choice  among  motives. 


72  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN, 

2.  A  plurality  of  motives. 

3,  The  influence  of  intellect  on  voluntary 
motion. 

How  does  liberty  acquire  the  character  of 
Morality. 

By  the  victory  of  the  powers  proper  to  man 
over  his  brute  nature. 

Is  it  a  difficult  or  an  easy  task  to  practise  nat- 
ural morality? 

It  is  one  of  extreme  difficulty.  Man  is  uni- 
versally inchned  to  break  the  natural  laws. 
'There  is  no  perfectly  just  man. ' 

Is  there  a  natural  cause  of  moral  evil? 

Many  religious  systems  recognize  a  primi- 
tive seduction  effected  by  an  evil  spirit,  often 
represented  under  the  form  of  a  serpent;  but  the 
cause  which  continues  to  prompt  man  to  in- 
fringe the  moral  law  is  in  himself. 

Are  there  then  any  bad  faculties  in  man? 

No  faculty  of  human  nature  can  be  bad  in 
itself, — the  Author  of  the  whole  is  all  perfec- 
tion. The  faculties  ai'e  neither  good  nor  bad; 
it  is  their  employment  only  to  which  these  ti- 
tles can  be  apphed. 

Is  it  reasonable  to  decry  human  nature? 


MORAL    LAWS.  73 

It  is  absurd  to  decry  human  nature  and  at 
the  same  time  to  exalt  rehgion,  which  is  a  part 
of  the  human  constitution,  and  to  teach  that 
man  is  made  in  the  Hkeness  of  God. 

Has  the  Creator  ^villed  the  moral  evil  of 
man? 

Such  an  opinion  is  incompatible  with  the 
notion  of  a  supremely  benevolent  and  all 
wise  God. 

Is  man  then  destined  for  happiness  ? 
To  suppose  an  infinitely  good  Creator  de- 
lighting in  the  misery  of  his  creatures,  is  re- 
pugnant to  good  sense,  and  to  propriety  of  feel- 
ing. Man,  says  Moses,  was  happy  until  the 
moment  of  his  disobedience. 

What  are  the  synonymes  of  Happiness  and 
Misery? 

They  are  the  words  Pleasure  and  Pain. 
Is  pleasure  good  or  evil? 
It  is  frequently  neither  the  one  nor  the  other, 
and  it  may  occasionally  be  both,   though,  in  it- 
self. Pleasure  can  never  be  evil,  seeing  that  it 
accompanies  the  activity  of  every  fundamen- 
tal power,  and  that  man  possesses  certain  fac- 
ulties solely  destined  for  his  amusement;  mu- 
7 


74  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

sic,  for  instance,  painting,  sculpture,  and  the 
feeling  that  inspires  mirth  and  laughter. 

Can  Pleasure  be  the  end  or  aim  of  man's 
existence? 

No;  because  some  acts  evidently  bad  are  ac- 
companied with  pleasure. — The  wicked  man 
is  pleased  in  his  iniquity.  We  are  therefore 
commanded  by  Morality  to  renounce  pleasure 
as  often  as  the  faculties  we  possess  in  common 
with  animals  are  in  opposition  to  those  peculiar 
to  our  humanity,  or  whenever  these  are  not  in 
harmony  with  each  other. 

What  is  the  grand  cause  of  the  moral  misery 
of  man? 

It  consists  in  the  great  activity  of  the  inferior 
or  animal  faculties.  These,  when  combat- 
ed by  the  moral  nature,  suffer  pain  from  the 
restraint.  Moreover,  the  desires  they  ori- 
ginate are  insatiable;  the  more  they  are  indulg- 
ed, the  more  they  crave  indulgence. 

Is  it  probable  that  the  struggle  which  accom- 
panies good  conduct  is  a  natural  arrangement? 

Yes;  for  without  the  necessity  of  combat- 
ing the  inferior  propensities  and  sentiments, 
there  could  be  no  such  thing  as  Virtue.     This 


MORAL    LAWS.  75 

implies  a  victory,  which  is  not  to  be  won  with- 
out an  adversary,  and  courage  to  make  resis- 
tance. 

Since  the  Creator  ordained  that  man  should 
struggle,  has  he  also  decreed  his  fall? 

Reason  and  MoraHty  proclaim  the  contrary. 

What  must  be  done  to  render  mankind  hap- 
py? 

They  must  be  made  morally  good,  to  the 
end  that  they  may  love  moral  actions ;  in  other 
words,  the  activity  of  the  faculties  pecuharto 
man  must  be  increased,  and  the  energy  of 
those  held  in  common  with  animals  diminished. 

By  what  title  are  good  actions  distinguished, 
and  what  is  he  called  who  practises  them? 

Good  actions  are  entitled  Virtues,  and  he 
wlio  practises  the  virtues  is  styled  Virtuous. 

Whence  were  these  ivords  derived,  and  what 
was  their  original  meaning? 

They  came  from  the  Latin;  and  signified 
primarily,  force  or  strength.  This,  indeed, 
may  be  physical,  or  it  may  be  moral;  but 
among  the  Romans,  as  among  other  warlike 
nations,  bodily  strength  combined  with  cour- 
age was  considered  a  most  valuable  quality. 


76  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

And  since  moral  actions  require  an  internal 
struggle,  to  render  human  nature,  properly  so 
called,  triumphant,  the  title.  Virtue,  was  also 
applied  here. 

Is  there    any  difference  between    the  natural 
laws  and  the  natural  virtues^ 

When  the  words,  Law  and  Virtue,  are  used 
synonymously,  the  laws  and  virtues  of  na- 
ture are  identical.  But  if  Law  be  employed  to 
signify  the  regularity  with  which  forces  act,  and 
phenomena  appear,  and  Virtue  to  denote  the 
just  employment  of  the  faculties,  a  distinction 
between  the  two  becomes  necessary. 
How  may  virtuous  actions  he  divided? 
According  as  the  Divine  laws,  or  the  laws 
imposed  by  Men,  are  concerned. 

How  may  the  Civil  laws — laws  imposed  by 
men^  be  subdivided? 

1st,  According  to  the  nature  of  the  legisla- 
tive power,  as  Despotic,  Arbitrary,  or  Con- 
ventional laws. 

2d,  According  to  the  situations  or  circum- 
stances for  which  they  are  contrived,  as  the 
Civil  code  of  laws,  the  Penal  code,  Commer- 
cial code,  &c. 


MORAL    LAWS.  77 

Holo  may  Divine  laws — laws  institmd  by 
God,  be  subdivided? 

Into  Natural  and  Revealed.  These  two  or- 
ders, however,  must  of  necessity  harmonize. 
To  suppose  that  they  differ,  would  be  to  sup- 
pose God  in  contradiction  with  himself. 

What  then  is  the  touchstone  by  ichich  the 
•excellence  of  a  law,  styled  Revealed^  or  any  in- 
terpretation of  it,  may  be  tried? 

Laws  styled  Revealed  and  interpretations  of 
them,  are  perfect  in  proportion  as  they  harmo- 
nize with  the  laws  of  the  Creator,  or  possess 
the  characteristics  of  a  Natural  law. 

What  are  the  objects  in  relation  to  lohich 
Virtues  and    Vices  are  distinguished? 

1st,  The  Creator. 

2d,   The   beings  of  creation. 

3d,  The   agent,  or  being  who  acts. 

4th,  His  family. 

5th,  His  nation. 

6th,  Mankind  at  large. 

How  are  laws  denominated  when  considered 
in  regard  to  their  Divine  origin? 

They  are  called  Religious. 

And  how  are  laws  entitkd  when  the  necessity 


78  NATURAL    LAWS    OP    MAN. 

of  man* s  submitting  to,  and  practising  them,  is 
the  view  taken'? 

They  are  then  named  Moral. 

May  the  Religious  and  Moral  laics  he  sep- 
arately considered? 

Religious  and  Moral  laws  are  intimately  con- 
nected, yet  not  so  intimately  as  to  preclude  the 
possibility  or  the  propriety  of  considerino^  each 
class  under  a  separate  head. 


CHAPTER  L 

OF    MORALITY. 

In  ivhat  does  a  Moral  doctrine  consist^ 

It  is  a  doctrine  of  rights  and  of  duties,  and 
of  those  things  which  are,  and  of  those  things 
which  are  not,  to  be  done. 

What  is  to  be  understood  by  moral  philoso- 
phy9 

The  term  moral  is  sometimes  used  in  op- 
position to  physical,  also  styled  natural  and 
the  moral  philosophy  means  the  docirine  of  the 


MORAL    LAWS.  79 

Mind;  but  the  same  term  also  signifies  the  high- 
er powers  of  Man  in  opposition  to  his  brute 
nature,  and  in  that  sense,  moral  philosophy  is 
the  same  as  Ethics,  the  doctrine  of  rights  and 
of  duties,  or  of  the  moral  precepts  which  ad- 
mit of  proof  by  reasoning,  and  which  bear  the 
character  of  conviction. 

.^5  to  rights — has  man  any  right  over  God? 

He  has  none. 

What  duties  J  has  man  toioards  his  Maker? 

To  obey  His  will  in  all  things. 

What  rights  has  man  over  the  beings  of  ere- 
ntion  generally? 

Man's  superior  endowment  m  faculties  ele- 
vates him  far  above  all  else  that  lives,  and  he 
has  a  natural  title  to  profit  by  his  situation. 
Such  a  law  is  universal;  it  extends  throughout 
the  whole  chain  of  created  things. 

Can  we  then  with  propriety  say  that  all  was 
made  solely  for  man? 

It  is  ill-directed  pride  alone  that  has  promo- 
ted the  conception  or  the  utterance  of  such  an 
assertion.  Every  creature  advantages  itself 
at  the  expense  of  others;  and  if  man  tui'n  the 
whole  to  his  profit,  he  only  follows  the  com- 


80  NATURAL    LAWS  OP  MAN. 

mon  course  of  nature.  This,  however,  is  far 
from  showing  that  all  was  made  solely  for  him. 
Geology  indeed  proves,  that  many  beings  in- 
habited the  earth  before  the  human  kind  was 
called  into  existence. 

Has  raan  rights  only    over  those  creatures 
uhich^  tvith  himself^  ^^y^y  existence^ 

No;  he  has  duties  also  towards  them.  Nei- 
ther the  physical  nor  the  purely  animal  nature 
knows  aught  of  duty;  but  to  these,  man  unites 
a  third,  which  causes  him  to  view  his  actions 
in  relation  to  morality.  An  essential  faculty  of 
the  moral  man  is  Benevolence,  and  this  forbids 
him  to  torment  sentient  beings  for  his  pleasure. 
All  cruelty  to  animals  is,  therefore,  interdicted 
by  Natural  Morality. 

Is  there  a  natural  law^  that  allows  man  to 
kill  animals  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh  as  food9 
Many  tribes  of  the  lower  animals  only  live 
by  shedding  blood.  Now  the  brute  portion  of 
his  nature  leads  man  to  destroy  just  as  it  does 
the  inferior  creatures .  Man 's  anatomical  struc- 
ture proves  also,  that  he  is  fitted  to  live  upon 
flesh;  and  further,  he  thrives  on  such  food. 
Still,  his  benevolence  ought  to  restrain  him  from 


MORAL    LAWS.  81 

the  commission  of  every  act  of  cruelty,  either 
against  the  lower  animals  or  his  fellow-men. 

What  Virtues  may  be  entitled  Individual'? 

Every  action  whose  end  is  development  and 
preservation  of  the  body,  the  understanding, 
and  the  moral  character  of  the  Individual. 

Wherein  consists  the  difference  between  In- 
dividual  Virtues  and  those  Virtues  which  reg-ard 
Families,  J^ations,  and  the  tvhole  Human  kind? 
It  lies  in  the  employment  that  is  made  of  the 
corporeal,  affective,  and  intellectual  powers, 
to  further  the  happiness  of  ourselves,  of  our 
families,  or  of  mankind  in  general. 

Which  of  these  Virtues  is  the  most  excellent 
and  ennobling? 

That  which  interests  the  whole  human  kind 
is  eminently  superior  to  all  the  rest.  True  it 
is,  indeed,  that  this  is  generally  lost  sight  of 
altogether.  In  the  appreciation  of  the  Virtues, 
the  scale  of  their  worth  is  commonly  reversed. 
Most  men  think  first  of  themselves,  then  of  their 
familes,  then  of  their  country,  and  seldom  ex- 
pend a  thought  upon  humanity  at  large.  There 
are  even  few  who  recognize  the  happiness  of 
the  species  as  the  aim  of  man's  existence,  and 


/'/sir- 


82  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

die  subordination  of  all  else  to  this.  Yetnatvire 
shows  most  evidently  that  she  does  all  for  the 
species;  she  universally  sacrifices  individuals 
to  its  preservation.  Moreover,  desire  of  self- 
preservation  inheres  in  all  animals,  love  of  fam- 
ily and  of  country  in  a  smaller  number,  but 
love  of  the  entire  species  is  a  distinguishing 
character  of  man  in  his  best  estate. 

Is  it  to  be  expected  that  man  will  speedily 
practise  the  virtue  of  universal  love^ 

No;  hitherto  the  happiness  of  countries  has 
been  sacrificed  to  that  of  famihes  and  of  indi- 
viduals; but  general  philanthropy  is  commonly 
decried  and  scouted  as  an  aberration  of  the  un- 
derstanding; and  this,  too,  in  despite  of  the  ex- 
press command  of  Christianity. 

The  basis  of  natural  morality  being  deter- 
mined j*  and  the  sources  of  good  and  evil  being 
ascertained  to  be  internal,]  what  method  may  be 
advantageously  pursued  in  examining  Virtu- 
ous and    Vicious  actions? 

These  may  be  considered  according  to  pri- 
mary faculties,  as  it  is  their  employment  that 
is  good  or  bad. 

What  Virtues  belong  to  the  sexual  propensity? 

*  See  page  70.  fSee  page  72. 


MORAL    LAWS.  83 

Chastity,  and  the  gratification  cf  the  appe- 
tite guided  by  the  laws  of  hereditary  descent. 

Jlre  Continence  and  Chastity  useful  to  indi- 
vidfXals? 

Moderation  in  sexual  indulgence  promotes 
bodily  strength,  and  favors  health.  Hence 
the  Athletae  of  antiquity  were  enjoined  Conti- 
nence during  their  preparations  for  exhibiting 
feats  of  strength  and  agiUty. 

Is  the  Continence    enforced  in  monastic  in- 
stitutions to  be  reorarded  as  an  absolute  virtue? 
To  entitle  it  to  such  consideration,  it  must 
be  proved    advantageous    to    individuals,   to 
communities,  and  to  the  species  at  large. 
W  hat  evil  effects  attend  on  Celibacy? 
The  unwedded  are  apt  to  become  selfish, 
and  to  neglect  the  social  and  domestic  virtues. 
Celibacy,  therefore,  may  sometimes  be  a  vice. 
Why  did  Jesus  Christ,  our  model  of  Justice 
upon  earth,   advise  his  disciples  against   mar- 
riage? 

Probably  that  they  might  have  all  leisure 
and  liberty  to  teach  and  spread  abroad  the 
knowledge  of  the  new  doctrine. 

Is  there  any  merit  in  abnegating  marriage 
through  love  of  the  public  good? 


84  NATURAL    LAWS    OP    MAN. 

Celibacy  on  such  grounds  is  an  act  of  the 
greatest  virtue. 

Can  Celibacy  under  any  circumstances  be  an 
error? 

Yes,  when  denial  disturbs  the  general 
functions  of  the  body;  when  it  destroys  appe- 
tite, causes  sleeplessness,  and  induces  unheal- 
thy action  of  any  sort;  or  when  it  occasions  hy- 
pocrisy and  mendacity,  for  instance,  in  those 
who  make  a  religious  virtue  of  it,  and  act  in 
opposition  to  their  professions. 

What  are  the  Vices  of  the  sexual  propensity? 
Libertinage,  seduction,  adultery,  and  incest. 
What  are  the  consequences  of  Libertinage? 
Bodily  infirmity,  mental  weakness,  the  con- 
traction of  bad  habits  and  of  disease,  the  ruin  of 
fortune,  and  a  thousand  ills  beside. 

Why  should  Chastity  be  a  greater  virtue,  and 
Incontinence  a  greater  vice,  among  females  than 
males? 

Because  the  latter  superinduces  the  same 
diseases  in  both  sexes,  and  the  bodies  of  wo- 
men being  less  robust  than  those  of  men,  they 
suffer  more  from  their  effects.  Women  too 
are  exposed  to  all  the  inconveniences  that  pre- 


MORAL    LAWS.  85 

cede,  accompany,  and  follow  child-bearing; 
and  becoming  mothers  illegally,  if,  as  is  more 
than  probable,  they  be  abandoned  by  their 
seducers,  they  find  themselves  shunned  by 
society,  and  burthened  with  a  family  without 
adequate  means  of  support.  Victims  of  self- 
reproach,  sunk  in  wretchedness,  and  disgusted 
with  life,  they  can  then  only  look  forward  to 
the  grave  as  the  goal  at  which  their  miseries 
may  terminate. 

Is  Polygamy  agreeable  or  contrary  to  the 
law  of  natural  morality? 

Polygamy  has  only  obtained  among  men 
through  excessive  activity  of  the  sexual  pro- 
pensity in  individuals,  and  the  right  of  the  strong- 
est. There  are  certainly  not  more  females  than 
males  born,  and  the  law  which  says,  'Love 
thy  neighbor  as  thyself,'  forbids  appropriation^ 
if  it  can  be  effected  only  by  robbing  others  of 
the  share  of  enjoyment  destined  for  them  by  na- 
ture. Polygamy  is  therefore  in  opposition  to 
the  natural  law  of  morality. 

What  should  be  required  in  the  parties  who 
tcould  contract  marriage? 

They  ought  to  possess  all  the  conditions  re- 
8 


86  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

quired  by  the    laws    of  hereditary   descent.* 
What  individuals  should  abstain  from  mar- 
rying'? 

All  who  have  the  seeds  of  a  serious  heredi- 
tary malady  in  their  constitutions;  all  who  are 
^veak  in  body  or  in  mind;  and  all  who  have  the 
distinguishing  attributes  of  humanity  in  small 
proportions.  Such  abstinence  would  be  of  far 
more  importance  to  mankind  than  the  celibacy 
practised  by  the  teachers  of  religion  and  mor- 
ahty  in  some  countries. 

Is  it  not  improper  to  insist  so  strongly  on  the 
laws  of  hereditary  descent,  seeing  that  they  lim- 
it  a  natural  desire,  implanted  by  the  Creator? 

By  no  means.  Not  only  the  laws  of  hered- 
itary descent  but  also  the  sexual  appetite,  are 
of  divine  origin;  and  it  is  much  rather  a  crime 
to  be  ignorant  of  the  laws  of  hereditary  descent, 
or,  knowing  them,  to  neglect  their  practice, 
than  recklessly  to  indulge  the  sexual  propen- 
sity. 

Is  Incest  a  crime  against  natural  morality? 

It  appears  to  be  so;  for  those  families,  of 
which  the  near  relations  intermarry,  degen- 
erate. 

•  See  Page  26. 


MORAL    LAWS.  87 

Is  Adultery  also  an  infringement  of  the  na- 
tural law') 

Yes;  because  it  causes  disorder,  destroys 
conjugal  confidence,  and  ruins  domestic  order 
and  tranquillity. 

Is  marriage  or  union  for  life,  an  institution 
of  nature? 

Yes;  even  animals,  especially  many  birds, 
are  united  for  the  term  of  their  lives,  and  man 
is  so  likewise  in  obedience  to  a  law,  which  in- 
heres in  the  faculty  of  Attachment,  and  this  is 
common  to  himself  and  the  lower  animals. 

Is  Divorce  permitted  by  natural  morality? 

Yes.  The  couples  which  have  no  family, 
or  which  can  provide  for  the  children  they 
may  have,  in  as  far  as  justice  requires,  do  well 
to  separate  rather  than  continue  to  live  in  per- 
petual warfare.  The  consequences  which  fol- 
low ill  assorted  unions  are  much  more  serious  to 
the  parties,  to  their  children,  and  to  society 
at  large,  than  such  as  attend  on  divorce.  Were 
the  sexes  what  they  ought  to  be,  there  would 
indeed  be  no  occasion  to  permit  divorce.  The 
conjugal  union  would  then,  without  any  res- 
traint, terminate  with  life.     In  the  mean  time, 


88  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

however,  divorce  should  be  obtainable  seeing 
that  the  social  institiitions  ought  to  be  the  sour- 
ces of  happiness  and  not  of  misery.  And 
whatever  lessens  happiness  and  causes  misery, 
is  evil,  and  contrary  to  nature. 

What  are  the  virtues  of  Love  of  Offspring? 

The  care  which  parents  take  in  aiding  the 
bodily  and  mental  development  of  their  chil- 
dren, in  cultivating  their  talents,,  and  superin- 
ducing habits  useful  to  themselves  and  to  their 
fellow-men;  in  a  word,  the  efforts  given  to 
bring  them  up  in  the  knowledge  and  practice  of 
truth  and  justice. 

Is  such  parental  virtue  common? 

It  is  unfortunately  very  rare.  Children  are 
generally  produced  without  a  thought  given  to 
the  laws  of  hereditary  descent  and  reared  mere- 
ly to  please,  or  serve  as  pastimes  to  their  pa- 
rents; who  more  commonly  attend  to  what  may 
flatter  their  own  capricious  tastes,  than  to  what 
may  be  substantially  useful  to  their  children 
and  the  commonwealih.  Children  are  fre- 
quently spoilt  through  indulgent  weakness, 
(when  their  waywardness  and  unruliness  are 
insuflerable,)  or  they  are  forced  to  a  mean  and 


MORAL    LAWS.  89 

slavish  submissiveness  of  deportment  equally 
unpleasing  and  pernicious.  To  give  a  good  di- 
rection to  Philoprogenitiveness  requires  a  com- 
plete knowledge  of  human  nature  generally, 
and  of  the  qualities  necessary  to  guide  the  in- 
dividuals— the  particular  subjects  of  atten- 
tion. 

What  are  the  fundamental  duties  of  parents 
to  their  children? 

To  procure  them  a  good  organic  constitution, 
to  exercise  those  faculties  with  which  they  are 
endowed,  and  to  choose  them  a  suitable  pro- 
fession; to  instruct  them  in  the  laws  of  their 
Creator;  to  show  them  the  necessity  of  submit- 
ting to  these,  and  to  set  the  example  of  obedi- 
ence. 

Is  it  the  duty  of  parents  to  leave  riches  to  their 
children? 

Natural  morality  forbids  the  accumulation  of 
riches;  and  surely  parents  cannot  be  obliged  to 
do  aught  which  may  pave  the  way  to  the  im- 
morality and  degeneracy  of  their  children. 

Have  parents  a  natural  right  to  obedience 
from  their  children? 

So  long  as  cliildren   remain  dependent  on 
8* 


90  NATURAL    LAWS  OF    MAN. 

their  parents,  ihey  are  bound  to  obey  them, 
but  this  obhgation  ceases  with  the  state  of  de- 
pendence. 

What  are  the  duties  of  children  towards  their 
parents? 

Children  so  long  as  they  are  dependent  must 
respect  their  parents  as  superiors  and  bene- 
factors, and  repay  the  attachment  and  tender 
cares  they  have  received,  with  interest,  during 
the  term  of  their  lives.  The  child  when  born 
is  indebted  to  parental  love  for  the  very  con- 
tinuance of  its  life,  and  old  age  has  frequent 
occasion  for  the  aids  of  fihal  piety  and  aflection. 

What  are  the  duties  of  a  husband? 

He  ought  to  have  a  trade  or  profession,  to 
procure  food  and  clothing  for  himself  and  his  fa- 
mily, which  he  is  to  watch  over  and  protect, 
and  also  to  have  a  portion  of  his  time  at  the 
command  of  the  public  service. 

What  are  the  duties  of  a  wife? 

To  take  care  of  the  interior  of  the  house,  and 
to  arrange  all  matters  connected  with  the  do- 
mestic economy;  to  instruct  the  boys  in  the  ru- 
diments of  learning,  and  to  educate  the  girls 
/entirely. 


MORAL    LAWS.  91 

What  are  the  principal  virtues  of  Attach- 
ment? 

Society,  Friendsbip,  and  Patrial  love. 

Is  Society  J  or  the  social  state  ^  an  institution 
of  nature? 

■  Man  is  no  where  found  solitary;  he  is  at  the 
least  one  of  a  family;  families  unite  and  form 
tribes,  and  these  compose  nations. 

Can  society^  of  itself  be  said  to  produce 
virtues  or  vices? 

Society  is  the  consequence  of  an  innate 
primary  faculty,  and  social  virtues  and  social 
vices,  as  they  are  called,  result  from  its  com- 
binations with  other  fundamental  powers.  The 
institutions  destined  to  direct  mankind  in  their 
actions  are  and  will  continue  to  be  the  princi- 
pal causes  of  their  virtues  and  of  their  vices, 
so  long  as  internal  motives,  sufficient  to  in- 
duce the  practice  of  morality,  independently 
of  all  enactments,  shall  not  beexperiencd. 

Is  Patrial  love  commanded  by  natural  mo- 
rality? 

Natural  morality  recognizes  no  one  species 
of  exclusive  love  as  a  supreme  law;  love  ofna- 


92  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

live  land  is  admitted,  but  still  as  subordinate 
to  uriversal  love.  Partiality  is  an  attribute 
of  the  animal  nature,  General  Love  of  proper 
humanity  alone. 

Wherein  lies  the  clijference  between  Conju- 
gal love^  Family  love^  Fraternal  love,  and 
P atrial  love? 

Each  kind  depends  on  the  faculty  of  At- 
tachment combined  with  other  and  difierent 
powers.  Attachment  with  the  sexual  propen- 
sity begets  conjugal  love,  with  love  of  offspring 
family  love;  the  love  of  a  fraternity  is  based 
upon  an  attachment  with  success  in  particular 
views  or  plans,  and  the  love  of  native  country 
on  an  attachment  extended  to  the  land  of  our 
birth,  to  its  manners  and  mode  of  living,  to  the 
men  speaking  the  same  language,  governed  by 
the  same  laws  as  ''urselves,&c. 

What  is  the  direction  of  Attachment  which 
is  conformable  to  natural  morality,  and,  con- 
sequently, positively  Virtuous? 

That  which  is  bestowed  on  those  who  sub- 
mit to  the  laws  of  the  Creator. 

And  what  direction  of  Attachment  is  vicious? 

That  which  is  not  given  agreeable  to  natu- 
ral morality. 


MORAL    LAWS.  93 

Are  there  amj  positive  codes  that  exact  at- 
tachment in  conformity  with  natural  morality. 

Yes;  the  Indian  system  of  morals,  and  the 
code  of  Jesus  command  us  to  know  as  brothers 
and  as  sisters  those  only  who  do  the  will  of 
God. 

Is  resistance  of  attack,  or  self-defence,  per- 
mitted by  natural  morality'^ 

Courage  is  a  primary  faculty  of  human  nature, 
and  its  proper  employment  a  virtue.  Such  a 
power,  in  the  order  of  things,  was  indispensa- 
ble to  individual  preservation  and  well  being. 
It  is  a  frequent  means  in  procuring  aliment,  it 
enables  us  to  overcome  obstacles,  and  is  even 
useful  in  maintaining  peace. 

Is  personal  courage  assisted  by  muscular 
strength? 

So  much  so,  that  several  philosophers  have 
conceived  it  a  result  of  this.  Courage,  bow- 
ever,  is  the  appanage  of  no  particular  degree 
of  muscularity  or  bodily  power. 

Is  Courage  in  itself  either  Virtue  or   Vice'^ 

Ancient  philosophers  ranked  it  as,  one  of 
the  four  cardinal  Yirtues,but  in  itself  Courage 
is  neither  Virtue  nor  Vice;  one  or  other  of  these 


94  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

titles  it  gains  according  to  its  just  or  unjust 
employment. 

When  is   Courage  a    Virtue? 

When  it  is  displayed  in  conformity  with  na- 
tural morality. 

^nd  when  is   Courage  a  Vice? 

When  it  aids  the  animal  nature  against  that 
which  is  peculiarly  human. 

What  are  the  chief  Vices  of  Courage? 

War  of  aggression;  Quarelsomeness;  Love 
of  Fighting  and  of  witnessing  Combats  between 
animals  or  men,   Dispute,  Contention,  &c. 

What  employment  of  Courage  deserves  to  be 
praised  and  rewarded? 

Such  as  favors  natural  morality  is  alone 
commendable,  is  alone  worthy  of  reward. 

What  is  the  right  which  man  possesses 
through  his  propensity  to  destroy? 

It  is  that  of  killiiig  other  animals  for  the  sake 
of  their  flesh.  Violent  death  is  one  of  Nature's 
enactments,  and  man  has  that  in  his  constitu- 
tion which  originates  the  law. 

Has  man  a  title  to  torment  animals  in  any 
way  whatever? 

No;  his  moral  part  forbids  all  cruel  amuse- 


MORAL    LAWS.  95 

merits,   and  all  indulgence  at  the  expense    of 
suffering  to  any  living  and  sentient  being. 

Has  man  a   right  to  slay   his  fellow  men'7 

Only  when  he  cannot  otherwise  defend  his 
life,  or  if  this  be  the  sole  means  of  preventing 
malefactors  from  committing  murder. 

Is  capital  punishment  admissible  in  society? 

Society  may  agree  to  inflict  death  to  get  rid 
of  evil-doers;  but  it  is  unjust  and  cruel  to  re- 
sort to  such  an  extreme  measure  until  every 
other  means  has  been  tried,  and  found  ineffec- 
tual to  protect  the  community  against  crimin- 
als. Yet  it  is  understood  that  this,  as  well  as 
all  other  penalties,  is  to  be  applied  universally, 
and  without  distinction  of  persons. 

Does  not  man's  peculiar  part  revolt  at  the 
idea^  and  natural  morality  command  the  aholi' 
tion,  of  capital  punishment? 

Man's  ennobhng  and  peculiar  nature  does 
only  good;  it  never  returns  evil  for  evil,  or 
takes  revenge;  it  consequently  commands  the 
abolition  of  capital  punishment.  It  is  the  an- 
imal nature,  combined  with  the  simple  sense  of 
justice,  which  has  established  the  law  of  re- 
taliation— the  lex  talionis.     Man 's  proper  na- 


96  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

ture  may,  however,  lawfully  employ  the  ani- 
mal faculties  to  enforce  and  to  assist  natural 
morality,  and  capital  punishment  must  be  in- 
flicted if  with  its  abolition  the  number  of  crimes 
should  increase. 

Is  the  practice  of  Duelling  permitted  by  the 
law  of  natural  morality? 

Duelling  is  opposed  to  every  one  of  its  pre- 
cepts. He  who  sheds  blood  in  a  duel  is  guilty 
of  murder.  The  custom  originated  in  the 
right  of  the  strongest,  and  its  continuance  is 
one  of  the  remains  of  barbarism. 

Is  war  between  nations  agreeable  to  natural 
morality? 

He  who,  under  any  circumstances,  attacks 
and  puts  another  to  death,  commits  a  murder 
in  the  eye  of  God.  All  wars  of  conquest  are 
utterly  at  variance  with  the  moral  law.  De- 
fensive war  is  alone  lawful.  Every  nation, 
like  every  individual,  has  the  undoubted  right 
of  repelling  any  other  that  would  attempt  to 
enslave  it.  It  has  even  a  right  to  destroy  its 
enemies,  if  there  be  no  other  means  of  pre- 
serving its  liberties  and  independent  existence. 

JVliat  are  the  good  effects  of  the  faculty  of 
Constructiveness? 


MORAL    LAWS.  97 

This  faculty  is  the  source  of  the  mechanical 
arts;  its  employment  is  virtuous  when  it  adds 
to  the  means  of  subsistence,  and  favors  the 
general  welfare;  for  instance,  when  it  procures 
a  good  dwellino--house,  convenient  articles  of 
furniture,  or  clothing  which  does  not  impede 
the  m.olions  of  the  body,  and  which  protects  it 
from  the  inclemencies  of  the  seasons,  or  the 
sudden  variations  of  atmospherical  tempera- 
ture. 

In  what  manner  does  the  faculty  of  Construe- 
tiveness  work  evil  !■ 

The  mechanical  arts  are  injurious  to  mankind 
by  introducing  luxury.  Ordinary  enjoyments 
then  suffice  no  longer,  and  the  desires  are 
guided  by  caprice.  To  meet  the  many  and 
expensive  demands  thus  incurred,  large  sums  of 
money  are  required,  and  to  procure  these,  ev- 
ery means  is  adopted  without  scruple.  Mor- 
als thus  become  corrupted,  and  a  highway 
opened  to  all  the  miseries  which  attend  degen- 
erating men  and  declining  empires.  It  was 
with  justice  that  the  ancient  moralists  founded 
the  social  virtues  upon  simplicity  of  manners, 
restriction  of  wants,  and  contentment  with  little, 
9 


98  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

In  what  does  a  just  employment^  or  virtuous 
direction  of  the  faculty  of  Acquisitiveness ,  con- 
sist? 

In  procuring  the  necessaries  of  life,  or  as . 
the  Christian  code   has  styled  it,   'our   daily 
bread.' 

Is  property  permitted  by  natural  morality'? 
Yes;  for  as  all  who  hve  must  subsist,  all  must 
have  a  right  to  that,  at  least,  which  is  neces- 
sary to  support  hfe. 

Is  it  agreeable  or  contrary  to  natural  mO' 
rality  to  amass  great  ivealth9 

No  one  can  accumulate  riches  without  doing 
injury  to  his  neighbor,  and  violence  to  the 
natural  moral  law,  which  says,  'Love  thy 
neighbor  as  thyself.'  The  moral  law  gives 
'their  daily  bread'  to  all  who  employ  the  tal- 
ents they  possess,  but  it  gives   no  more. 

Does  natural  morality  permit  animals  to  be 
kept  for  the  purposes  merely  of  pleasure  and 
extravagance? 

No.  In  as  much  as  man  is  more  wordiy 
than  beasts,  it  is  against  natural  law  to  give 
to  horses  and  dogs  the  daily  bread  of  men,  or 
the  provender  which  would  feed  catde,  whose 


MORAL    LAWS.  99 

flesh  is  both  useful  and  necessary  as   ahment, 
to  the  human  khid. 

IVhich  are  the  most  useful  classes  in  man- 
kind? 

They  are  such  as  by  then-  industry  produce, 
or  augment,  the  value  of  things — agricultur- 
ists and  artizans. 

And  what  classes  are  the  most  useless? 

Such  as  do  nothing  but  consume. 

Does  natural  morality  set  limits  to  the  grat- 
ification of  the  love  of  gain? 

Certainly  it  does.  The  love  of  gain  is  the 
most  formidable  of  all  enemies  to  the  law  of 
neighborly  love.  Men  brought  up  under  the 
influence  of  the  spirit  of  trade,  generally  en- 
deavor by  every  means  in  their  power  to  evade 
the  commands  of  natural  morality. 

Does  the  natural  moral  law  grant  exclusive 
advantages  to  individuals  under  the  form  of 
privileges  or  monopolies? 

No;  on  the  contrary,  it  commands  every 
one  to  employ  the  talents  entrusted  to  his 
care,  for  the  advancement  of  the  common  good, 
the  universal  weal  of  man. 

What  are  tlie  privileges  accounted  the  least 
hlameahle  among  good  men? 


100  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

Such  as  are  granted  for  inventions  and  use- 
ful discoveries. 

Is  it  comformable  to  the  law  of  natural  moral- 
ity  to  secure  the  eldest  males  of  families  in 
large  possessions,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other 
children^ 

It  is  against  every  one  of  its  precepts. 

Is  hereditary  wealth  favorable  or  prejudi- 
cial to  the  culture  of  morality? 

To  amass  great  wealth  is  immoral,  it  is  im- 
moral to  leave  great  riches  to  children.  Man 
is  naturally  disposed  to  be  idle;  and  common- 
ly yields  to  the  inclination,  if  not  compelled  to 
exertion.  But  idleness  is  a  fertile  source  of 
immoralitv.  It  ruins  the  health,  enervates 
the  mind,  and  makes  life  a  curse.  Moses  says 
well — *Man  was  born  to  earn  his  bread  by 
the  sweat  of  his  brow.' 

Ilotv  do  the  rich  usually  apologize  for  their 
great  possessions? 

They  introduce  God  as  the  disposer  of  all 
things;  they  boast  of  being  his  favorites,  and 
say,  Providence  gave  them  all  they  have. 
Nevertheless  they  might  be  answered  by  a 
reference  to  the  Christian  code,  where   they 


MORAL   LAWS.  101 

will  find  themselves  admonished  to  give  their 
riches  to  the  poor,  in  order  more  easily  to  en- 
ter the  kingdom  of  heaven.  There,  too, 
they  will  learn,  tliat  the  indulgence  in  superflu- 
ities, and  hoarding  of  treasm-es,  while  thous- 
ands of  their  fellow-men  are  living  around 
them  in  indigence,  is  utterly  at  variance  with 
the  express  injunction  to  treat  our  neighbor  as 
ourselves.  The  love  of  money,  said  the  apos- 
tle Paul  to  Timothy,  is  the  root  of  all  evil. 

This  presumptuous  error  may  be  further  ex- 
posed by  recurring  to  the  history  of  rich  fam- 
ilies. These  have  always  degenerated  in  cor- 
poreal and  mental  quahties;  their  properties,  if 
not  secured  by  arbitrary  laws,  consequently 
pass  away  into  other  hands;  and,  in  fine,  no 
living  evidence  of  their  ever  having  existed  rem- 
ains— their  very  name  is  consigned  to  oblivion. 

Are  we  required  by  natural  morality  to  labor 
and  support  the  idler  9 

Whilst  it  commands  aid  to  the  unfortunate 
and  to  the  infirm,  who  are  unable  by  their  own 
exertions  to  procure  the  means  of  existence, 
natural  morality  enjoins  the  rejection  of  the 
sluggard  and  drone  as  unworthy.  The  Apos- 
9* 


105  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

tie  Paul  in  his  second  letter  to  the  Thessalon- 
ians,  iil.  10,  said:  'when  we  were  with  you,  this 
vve  commanded  you,  that  if  any  w^ould  not 
work,  neither  should  he  eat. ' 

When  we  see  that  arts  and  sciences  espe- 
cially flourish  when  every  one  strives  for  his 
individual  advantage^  is  it  not  likely,  that,  as 
this  could  not  continue  under  the  dominion  of 
natural  morality,  all  icould  droop  beneath  its 
reign9 

It  were  indeed  no  very  agreeable  reflection,. 
for  the  industrious  and  the  talented  to  think 
that  they  were  laboring  for  the  indolent  and  in- 
capable. Meantime,  however,  they  should  al- 
so remember,  that  they  have  no  natural  title, 
on  the  strength  of  a  patent  or  charter  of  privi- 
lege, to  deprive  others  of  the  opportunity  to 
earn  a  livelihood,  and  much  less,  on  account  of 
their  superior  endowments,  to  make  others  la- 
bor for  their  pecuhar  advantage. 

But  has  not  he    who  contnvcs  or   procures 
icorkfor  others  a  natural  right  to   gain  moi'e 
than  they? 
The  civil  law  says,  yes,  but  the  Christian  and 


MORAL    LAWS.  109 

natural  moral  codes  recognize  no  such  prlvi- 
ledge.  As  we  live  in  the  world  at  present, 
the  laws  should  apportion  to  each  person  who 
labors  his  share  of  the  profit,  according  to  his 
talents,  industry  and  care.  This  would  be 
necessary,  so  long  as  selfishness  predominates 
to  its  present  extent.  Legislat/^rs  should  fa- 
vor the  working  classes  as  much  as  possible 
and  use  every  means  of  rendering  the  reign  of 
natural  morality  practical. 

/s  it  possible  to   do  away  with  all  sense  of 
individual  pro-perty  ? 

To  attempt  such  a  thing  with  men  as  they  are 
now  constituted,  would  be  to  annihilate  even  the 
hope  of  general  happiness.  It  would  cause 
crimes  and  calamities  of  every  description. 
The  certainty  of  this  exists  in  the  evidently 
immoral  disposition  of  by  far  the  greatest  por- 
tion of  mankind,  and  in  the  general  prevalence 
of  cupidity,  and  in  the  distribution  of  talents. 
To  accomplish  the  beneficial  abolition  of 
private  property,  every  individual  ought  to  feel 
pleasure  in  acting  according  to  the  commands 
of  the  natural  and  Christian  moral  doctrines. 
Until  then,  property  must  be  respected.     The 


104  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

early  Christians  attempted  the  measure  of  ab- 
oHtion;  all  things  were  in  common  among  them; 
but  experience  proved  that  mankind  were  not 
then  in  a  condition  to  adopt  such  a  system;  and 
they  are  still  at  an  infinite  distance  from  the 
perfection  which  might  render  it  practicable. 
When,  when  will  men  be  able  to  obey  the  law 
of  universal  love! 

May  natural  morality^  to  a  certain  extent 
he  united  with  the  existence  of  individual  pos- 
sessions^ 

Yes;  by  fixing  the  maximum  of  property, 
and  the  conditions  under  which  this  may  law- 
fully be  acquired.  The  general  welfare  is  al- 
ways to  be  taken  as  the  foundation  in  such  con- 
siderations. Manufacturers  should  be  obliged 
to  lay  out  part  of  their  gains  in  bettering  the  con- 
dition, and  adding  to  the  comforts,  of  their  la- 
borers,— above  all,  they  ought  to  be  prevented 
from  injuring  the  health  and  morals  of  those  in 
their  employment. 

Does  natural  morality  set  bounds  to  national^ 
as  well  as  to  individual^  love  of  gain') 

Nations,  which  enrich  themselves  to  the  de- 
triment of  others,  act  contrary  to  the  laws  of 


MORAL    LAWS.  lOS 

morality.  The  natural  and  Christian  doctrines 
place  Universal  abov^e  Patriallove.  That  peo- 
ple, which  prevents  the  participation  of  its 
neighbors  in  the  advantages  it  enjoys,  though 
it  may  arrogate  the  title,  is  no  Christian  nation. 
Are  Sumptuary  laws  just  or  necessary? 
Did  manufacturers,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
every  country,  love  their  neighbors  as  them- 
selves, sumptuary  laws  w^ould  be  useless.  No 
one,  then,  would  wish  to  enrich  himself  in  par- 
ticular, the  products  of  every  land  would  be 
freely  exchanged,  and  manufactures  carried  on 
and  perfected  wlierever  it  could  be  done  most 
advantageously.  In  brief,  the  universal  good 
would  be  the  sole  consideration,  and  the  efforts 
of  all  be  directed  to  the  accomplishment  of  this 

great  end- 

Prohibitory  laiDS  in  general^  are  not,  how- 
ever, sufficient  to  establish  natural  morality;  are 
they? 

N-o.  They  may,  in  some  measure,  prevent 
the  evils  which  result  from  the  over  activity 
of  the  inferior  inclinations,  but  to  better  the 
lot  of  man,  it  would  be  necessary  to  diminish 
his  animality,  and  to  increase  the  energy  of  his 
peculiar  humanity. 


106  NATURAL    LAWS  OF    MAN 

What  are  the  Vices  of  the  desire  to  acquired 

Usury,  Fraud,  Gambling,  and  Theft  in  gen- 
eral. 

Has  the  icord  Theft  the  same  meaning  in  the 
civil  as  in  the  natural  code? 

Natural  morality  declares  many  actions  to 
be  Thefts  which  are  permitted  by  civil  laws. 
Every  one  according  to  the  first,  deserves  the 
name  of  Thief,  who  does  not  love  his  neighbor 
as  himself;  he,  for  instance,  who  amasses  wealth 
by  means  of  the  industry  of  others.  In  the 
eye  of  civil  laws,  however,  he  only  is  a  Thief 
who  takes,  by  force  or  fraud,  aught  that,  agree- 
ably to  the  law,  belongs  to  another. 

Is  theft  ^  in  the  sense  of  the  civil  law  ^forbid- 
den by  Christianity? 

Yes;  the  Christian  doctrine  forbids  evil  of 
every  kind. 

Does  it  go  no  farther? 

Much:  it  not  only  forbids  evil,  it  in  addition 
commands  universal  love,  and  in  this  it  har- 
monizes with  ^natural  morality.  'They  who 
came  before  me,'  said  Jesus,  hvere  thieves.' 
He  desired  us  to  be  satisfied  with  our  daily 
bread. 


MORAL    LAWS.  107 

What  are  the  virtues,  and  what  the  vices,  of 
the  Propensity  to  conceal  (Secretiveness)'? 

The  faculty  is  Virtuous  when  employed  in 
the  cause  of  general  welfare,  and  Vicious  when 
it  gives  rise  to  lying,  hypocrisy,  cunning,  in- 
intrigue,  and  duplicity. 

What  are  the  Virtues  of  Cautiousness'? 

Prudence,  doubt,  and  just  timidity. 

t^nd  its  vices? 

Irresolution,  puerile  terror,  melancholy  and 
despair. 

Is  Prudence  necessary  in  teaching  truth? 

The  hght  that  is  shed,  ought  certainly  to  be 
apportioned  to  the  capacity  of  bearing  it  in 
those  who  are  the  subjects  of  instruction,  Jesus 
mentioned  that  he  had  yet  many  things  to  say 
which  his  disciples  could  not  bear.  'There  is 
nothing  covered  that  shall  not  be  revealed,  and 
hid,  that  shall  not  be  known;'  Math.  x.  26.  He 
taught  them  in  parables  concerning  the  kingdom 
of  heaven,  but  added:  'what  I  tell  you  in  dark- 
ness that  speak  ye  in  hght,  and  what  ye  hear 
in  the  ear,  that  preach  ye  upon  the  housetops;' 
Matth.  X.  27. 

What  are  the  Virtues  and  the  Vices  of  Self- 
esteem? 


108  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    xMAN» 

True  dignity  and  nobleness  of  character  de* 
pend  in  part  on  self-esteem,  and  the  faculty  i*s 
virtuously  employed  in  the  production  of  such 
an  effect.  But  self-sufficiency,  pride,  haugh- 
tiness, and  disdainful  or  contemptuous  bearing, 
are  consequences  of  its  ov^er  activity  and  ill  di- 
rection. Coarseness  of  manners,  too,  under 
certain  circumstances,  and  impertinence,  are 
increased  by  self-esteem. 

What  is  the  signification  of  the  xcord  Hu' 
mility? 

It  is  synonymous  with  the  inaction  of  self- 
esteem.  Humility,  to  be  a  virtue,  must  result 
from  the  struggle  between  self-esteem  and  the 
moral  sentiments,  aud  the  victory  of  the  lat- 
ter. Humility  is  also  occasionally  used  to  sig- 
nify activity  in  the  Sentiment  of  Respectful- 
ness (Reverence). 

Is  self-esteem  a  necessary  quality^ 

Yes;  it  favors  general  independence.  Sub- 
missiveness  on  the  part  of  one,  encourages 
pride  and  the  love  of  dominion  in  another. 
Self-esteem  should  adjust  the  balance  be- 
tween the  ideas  of  our  own,  and  of  others* 
importance.     Its  virtuous    functions   emanate 


MORAL    LAWS.  109 

from  its  combinations  with  the  facukies  prop- 
er to  man. 

What  Virtues  and  what  Vices  belong  to  the 
faculty  of  Love  of  Approbation'^ 

This  sentiment  contributes  essentially  to  the 
union  of  mankind;  pohteness  of  deportment 
and  dehcacy  in  language,  deference  in  society, 
obligingness  of  manner,  and  good  breeding 
generally,  are  among  its  agreeable  manifesta- 
tions. But  petit-maitreism,  vanity,  ostenta- 
tion,ambition,  love  of  tides,  and  of  all  kinds  of 
mundane  distinctions,  are  consequences  of  its 
ill  directed  activity. 

Is  it  easy  or  difficult  to  guide  Self-esteem 
and  Love  of  Approbation  in  the  path  indicated 
by  natural  morality? 

It  is  extremely  difficult.  'To  fly  the  age  we 
live  in,'  says  Confucius,*  'to  suffer  without  re- 
pining, to  pass  unknown  and  unnoticed  among 
men,  is  a  task  to  be  accomplished  only  by  a 
saint.'  The  great  energy  of  these  two  senti- 
ments, strengthened  as  they  are  by  the  love  of 
gain,  and  the  inferior  inclinations  generally, 
occasion  innumerable  evils  in   the  world,  and 

*  Invariable  Millieu.  Chap.  xi. 

10 


110  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

excite  doubts  of  the  possibility  of  natural  mor- 
ality ever  being  established  as  the  rule  of  con- 
duct. The  Christian  law  declares  itself,  in 
terms  which  cannot  be  more  positive  or  more 
severe,  against  abuses  of  Self-esteem  and  Love 
of  Approbation;  nevertheless,  they  who  style 
themselves  behevers,  and  the  faithful,  par  ex- 
cellence, even  the  preachers  of  the  doctrine 
of  Jesus,  have  continued,  and  still  continue,  as 
well  as  pagans,  to  be  delighted  with  the  grat- 
ifications these  faculties  afi'ord,  and  to  attribute 
to  the  Supreme  Being  tastes  and  weaknesses 
similar  to  their  own. 

What  are  the  Virtues  of  Benevolence^ 

Meekness,  the  Spirit  of  peace.  Clemency, 
Toleration,  Liberahty,  Forgivingness  of  Tem- 
per, Hospitahly,  Equity,  and  Neighboily 
Love. 

Is  christian  charity  a  single  faculty? 
No;  it  embraces  the  whole   of  the  moral 
law,  and  the  regulation  of  every   action  that 
concerns  our  fellow-men. 

Is  Jlhns-giving  a  virtue? 

It  is  a  Virtue  or  it  is  a  Vice  according  as  the 
general  happiness  is  thereby  afiected.    If  it  en- 


MORAL    LAWS.  Ill 

courage  idleness,  society  suffers,  and  it  is  evi- 
dently blameable.  When  the  truly  deserving 
are  its  objects,  and  it  is  directed  to  purposes 
generally  useful,  it  is  conformable  to  natural 
morality,  and  is  praise-worthy.  Indiscriminate 
charity  is  never  to  be  recommended. 

Can  Benevolence  be  any  way  injunous  to 
mankind? 

Immensely.  If  not  directed  by  reason  com- 
bined with  the  sentiment  of  Justice,  it  may  en- 
courage slothfulness  and  poverty,  and  all  the 
vices  that  attend  on  these.  It  may  also  dis- 
pose to  prodigality  and  squandering. 
Is  Respectfulness  a  natural  Virtue? 
Yes;  nature  has  implanted  a  primary  senti- 
ment, its  cause,  in  the  constitution  of  man. 

Wliat  objects  especially  deserve  the  respect 
of  man? 

The  Supreme  Cause,  Parents,  those  who 
teach  the  laws  of  the  Creator,  those  who  watch 
over  their  accomplishment,  and,  in  general, 
all  that  is  benevolent,  just,  and  true. 
JHay  respect  ever  be  ill-directed? 
It  is  but  too  frequently  bestowed  altogether 
unworthily  upon  superstitious  notions  and  ob- 


112  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

servances,  and  upon  antiquated  forms,  usages, 
and  precedents. 

This  sentiment  then  requires  guidance  in  its 
application? 

Certainly;  and  reason  ought  especially  to 
rectify  the  errors  it  has  committed  in  regard  to 
religion.  All  the  sentiments,  without  excep- 
tion, are  blind,  and  require  the  aid  of  inteUi- 
gence  in  their  operation;  without  it  they  can 
never  act  in  harmony  with  the  whole  of  the  na- 
ture of  man. 

But  does  not  belief  suffice  to  direct  the  reli- 
gious sentiments? 

No;  for  religious  behef  has  induced  men  to 
admJt  the  most  contradictory  and  many  nox- 
ious propositions,  under  the  idea  that  we  ought 
to  obey  God  rather  than  man;  moreover,  that 
which  belief  leads  one  to  style  venerable  and 
holy,  is  often,  by  another,  called  absurd  and 
impious. 

The  religious  sentiments  are  given  to  man  as 
sources  of  happiness,  are  they  not? 

That  they  are  given  to  produce  good  is  ev- 
ident; they  are  the  gift  of  a  good  God,  but  hi- 
therto they  have  been  cruelly  abused. 


MORAL    LAWS.  113 

What  course  would  most  directly  tend  to 
abolish  the  errors^  and,  for  the  future,  to  avoid 
the  disorders,  ivhich  have  been  committed  in  the 
name  of  religion? 

It  -would  be  necessary  to  begin  by  permit- 
ting the  free  use  of  reason.  This,  too,  would 
be  the  first  step  towards  effecting  the  union  of 
all  religious  people.  As  yet  the  bhnd  lead  the 
blind,  but  reason  ought  to  enlighten  and  direct 
the  religious,  as  well  as  the  other  primitive  feel- 
ings. 

Is  belief  natural  to  man? 
Few  examine  and  combine  their  ideas.  The 
greater  number  admit  what  they  like  best,  or 
what  flatters  their  feelings  and  senses  most. 
They  who  hope  for  much,  willingly  beheve 
promises  made  to  them  in  the  name  of  heaven. 
They  who  are  inchned  to  admire  and  to  seek 
after  the  marvellous,  readily  give  credit  to  aught 
that  seems  mysterious.  And  they  who  com- 
bine the  sentiment  of  respectfulness,  with  the 
two  that  produce  these  effects,  are  fit  agents 
for  the  execution  of  whatever  they  ai'e  told  is 
necessary  to  the  glory  of  God. 

Is  the  believing  and  benevolent  man  every 
thing  we  expect  of  humanity? 


114  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

No;  he  may  be  still  unfurnished  with  many 
very  essential  qualities,  such  as  Justice — the 
fountain-head  of  morahty,  Reason — the  sole 
guide  of  action,  and  Perseverance,  the  indis- 
pensable assistant  in  the  task  of  completion. 

Does  the  sentiment  of  conscientiousness  of 
itself  suffice    to  prevent  injustice^ 

It  does  not.  This  sentiment,  it  is  true,  feels 
the  desire  of  acting  justly;  but  it  is  bhud,  and 
must  be  enlightened  by  reason,  before  its  ac- 
tions can  be  recognised  as  just.  It  is  Reason, 
therefore,  that  declares  every  thing  done  in 
conformity  with  the  dictates  of  the  faculties  pe- 
cuhar  to  man  to  be  just,  and  every  thing  con- 
trary to  their  commands  to  be  unjust. 

Is  natural  morality  the  same  as  positive  jus- 
tice'? 

The  natural  and  the  Christian  moral  codes 
:agree,  but  they  both  differ  from  the  civil  laws. 
These  last  only  forbid  the  doing  of  things  to 
others  which  we  would  not  that  they  did  to  us; 
whilst  the  natural  and  Christian  morality,  far 
more  noble,  command  the  doing  to  others  the 
things  which  we  would  that  they  did  to  us. 

Can  the  sentiment  of  conscientiousness  do 
harm  ? 


MORAL    LAWS,  115 

Yes;  by  acting  imcombined  with  Reason, 
and  those  powers  generally  which  are  pecuhar 
to  man. 

What  Virtues  and  what  Vices  belong  to  the 
faculty  of  Firmness  or  Perseverance'^ 

Perseverance  in  whatever  is  true,  just,  and 
reasonabie,  is  Virtuous;  but  to  persist  in  what 
is  false,  unjust,  and  unreasonable,  is  Vicious. 

Is  man  generally^  as  he  is  now  constituted^ 
capable  of  accomplishing  the  precepts  of  natu- 
of  morality'? 

No;  neither  the  governors  nor  the  governed 
are  generally  susceptible  of  such  superlative 
virtue.  All  that  good  men  can  do  at  present, 
is  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  the  system 
of  natural  morality,  to  submit  to  it,  and  to  spread 
abroad  its  knowledge ;  to  examine  into  the  ob- 
stacles which  oppose  its  admission;  and  to  pro- 
pose the  means  necessary  to  prepare  mankind 
for  the  happy  epoch,  when  they  will  be  capa- 
ble of  enjoying  the  blessings  it  must  diffuse, 
by  being  made  the  rule  of  action. 

Is  the  cultivation  of  the  Understanding  to  be 
regarded  as  a  duty'? 
Intelhgence  is  one  of  nature's  gifts;  it  is  there- 


116  NATURAL    LAWS  OF    MAN. 

fore  destined  to  act.  Our  existence,  indeed, 
depends  on  it.  Without  understanding  we 
should  know  neither  external  objects  and  their 
qualities,  nor  the  laws  which  govern  the  physi- 
cal and  moral  world;  neither  could  we  have 
any  moral  liberty. 

Is  understanding  recognised  as  necessary  to 
free  iciW 

Yes;  according  to  all  the  systems  of  legis- 
lation, idiots,  and  children  before  a  certain  age, 
are  not  accountable  for  their  actions,  because 
they  are  unable  to  distinguish  between  good 
and  evil. 

Are  the  functions  of  the  intellcctualf acuities 
Virtuous  or  Vicious^ 

They  may  be  either.  Intelligence  is  a 
means  of  doing  both  good  and  evil.  To  be 
Virtuous  it  must  second  natural  morality,  which 
is  the  end  of  our  being. 

What  is  the  vice  or  sin  against  Intelli- 
gence? 

It  is  Ignorance,  the  cause  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  evils.  Ignorance  commits  endless  er- 
rors; it  acts  unconscious  of  causes  and  of  ef- 
fects, and  can  never  repair  the  disasters  it  oc- 
casions. 


MORAL    LAWS.  117 

Is  man^s  ignorance  greats 

It  is  exceedingly  great.  The  most  com- 
mon and  necessary  things  are  totally  unknown 
to  the  bulk  of  mankind. 

Why  is  man's  ignorance  so  ^reat? 

The  cause  lies  in  the  generally  small  size  of 
the  organs  of  his  intellectual  faculties.  This 
is  also  the  reason  why  study  is  so  commonly 
irksome  and  distasteful.  Moreover,  the  civil, 
and  especially  the  religious,  governors  of  na- 
tions, have  frequently  opposed  every  sort  of 
obstacle  to  the  cultivation  of  Intellect,  and  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge. 

W hat  difference  is  there  between  Ignorance 
and  presumptuous  stupidity  (sottise  in 
French) 9 

Ignorance  is  compatible  with  the  presence 
of  excellent  natural  capacities;  presumptuous 
stupidity  depends  on  deficiency  of  the  intellect- 
ual powers,  joined  to  self-esteem  and  preten- 
sions to  learning. 

Is  Ignorance    despicable? 

Not  in  itself;  and  provided  every  opportu- 
nity of  gaining  information  and  exercising  the 
mental  powers  be  laid  hold  on. 


118  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

Is  it  the  same  in  regard  to  presumptuous 
stupidity? 

No.  This  is  despised  by  every  sensible 
person,  for  it  invariably  leads  men  to  neglect 
the  means  of  instruction. 

What  Is  the  dijjerence  between  a  learned 
and  a  wise  man? 

Every  man  who  knows  much  is  learned: 
but  he  only  is  wise  who  has  acquired  practical 
knowledge;  that  is  knowledge,  applicable  in  the 
affairs  of  life.  The  wise  man  also  endeavors  to 
account  for  what  he  observes,  and  to  discover 
principles,  in  comformity  with  which  he  may 
constantly  act. 

Is  it  necessary^  for  the  sake  of  morality,  to 
cultivate  the  Understanding? 

Although  neither  the  religious  nor  the  moral 
sentiments  spring  from  Understanding,  they 
still  require  its  guidance  in  their  apphcation, 
and  its  aid  in  enabling  them  to  act  harmoniously 
with  all  the  other  faculties  of  human  nature. 

What  should  be  the  aim  of  every  description 
of  study? 

The  establishment  of  Truth  and  attainment 
of   Perfection.     'Truth,'  says  Confucius,  'is 


MORAL    LAWS.  119 

the  law  of  Heaven,'   and    'Perfection   is  the 
beginning  and  the  end  of  all  things.' 

What  is  the  basis  on  which  the  perfecting  of 
mankind  must  proceed? 

Knowledge  cf  human  nature,  and  submission 
to  the  laws  of  the  Creator; — Conviction  that 
nothing  can  be  created,  but  only  modified  and 
reproduced  according  to  determinate  condi- 
tions. 

How  might  the  adoption  of  the  natural  laws^ 
as  the  rule  of  conduct^  he  most  speedily  effect- 
ed? 

By  governments  exacting  their  practice,  and 
joining  the  authority  of  example,  by  obeying 
their  commands. 

What  are  the  essehtial  requisites  in  a  Itgis- 
lator? 

He  ought  to  know  the  nature  of  the  being  for 
whom  he  enacts  laws,  to  believe  in  natural  mo- 
rality, and  to  attest  his  behef  by  his  actions. 

Have  men  any  right  mutually  to  impose 
their  wills  as  rules  of  moral  conduct? 

They  most  certainly  have  not.  There  is 
but  one  will  that  ought  to  be  done — the  Will 
of  God,  and  this,  in  morahty,  commands  im- 


120  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

perioiisly     to    man,     '  Thou   shall   love    thy 
neighbor  as  thyself.' 

JVIay  the  doctrine  of  Morality  become  a  sci- 
ence? 

There  can  be  no  doubt  it  may  by  studying 
the  laws  of  the  Creator  and  by  comparing 
them  with  pure  Christianity. 


CHAPTER  II. 

OF    RELIGION. 
I. 
OF    RELIGION    IN    GENERAL. 

Has  every  one  a  right  to  inquire  into  religious 
matters? 

It  seems  absurd  that  a  particular  profession 
should  enjoy  the  privilege  to  establish  rehgious 
opinions  incumbent  on  all  the  rest  of  the  com- 
munity, whilst  it  seems  right  that  every  reason- 
able mind  should  examine  the  most  important, 
viz.  the  religious  part  of  his  constitution. 


OF    RELIGION.  121 

Has  the  phrenologist  in  particular  a  right  to 
inquire  into  religion? 

Undoubtedly.  Phrenolori,/  embraces  the 
whole  of  the  mnate  dispositions.  Now  as 
there  are  innate  religious  feehngs,  the  phren- 
ologist is  enabled  to  examine  their  essence  and 
operations. 

What  are  the  limits  of  the  phrenologist  in 
the  examination  of  religious  conceptions? 

He  is  confined  to  the  result  of  the  innate 
rehgious  feelings  of  man. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  religion? 
This  name  comes  from  the  Latin,  and  signi- 
fies a  binding  together,  connexion,  or  union. 
We  particularly  understand  by  it,  a  belief  in 
supernatural  beings,  and  in  relations  between 
them  and  ourselves;  and  further,  the  practice 
of  rendering  them  worship,  in  whatever  this  is 
made  to  consist — in  whatever  manner  it  is  be- 
stowed. 

Have  men  universally  had  religion  of  some 
description? 

All  nations  whatsoever  have  conceived  the 
existence  of  supernatural  powers,  have  believ- 
ed themselves  in  relation  with  these,  and  have 
adored  them, although  in  very  different  manners. 
11 


122  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

Holo  may  Religions  be  divided'? 

According  to  the  number  of  supernatural  be- 
ings revered,  and  according  to  the  origin  of  re- 
ligious ideas. 

What  religious  systems  are  included  in  that 
division  which  regards  the  number  of  divinities') 

1st,  Polytheism, — the  system  of  beUef  in 
many  gods;  such  was  the  Pagan  Religion, 
styled  Mythology. 

2d,  Bitheism, — the  system  of  behef  in  two 
principles,  the  one  of  good,  the  other  of  evil, 
named  Osiris  and  Typhon  by  the  Egyptians; 
Brama  and  Moisaourby  the  Indians;  Ormuzd 
and  Ahrimanes  by  the  Persians;  Jehovah  and 
Satan  by  the  Jews;  God  and  the  Devil  by 
some  modern  nations,  &c. 

3d,  Monotheism, — the  system  of  behef  in 
one  Supreme  Being,  the  primary  cause  of  all 
that  is,  and  of  ail  that  comes  to  pass. 

Can  we   conceive  the  origin  of  PoIytheis)n? 

Yes;  by  keeping  in  view  the  nature  of  the 
faculties  possessed  by  man,  and  his  great  igno- 
rance. By  his  innate  dispositions  man  is  in- 
clined to  venerate,  to  fear,  to  admire,  and  to 
raise  his    mind   to  supernatural    conceptions. 


OF  RELIGION.  123 

These  feelings  he  at  first  employed  upon  nat- 
ural objects,  the  sun,  the  moon,  the  stars,  and 
afterwards  upon  the  personified  causes  of  nat- 
ural phenomena,  as  of  thunder,  of  the  wind,  of 
the  four  seasons,  of  vegetation, &c.  In  his  ig- 
norance, therefore,  man  followed  the  blind  dic- 
tates of  his  feelings,  and  espoused  such  opin- 
ions as  accorded  with  them. 

Can  we  also  conceive  the  system  of  two  prin- 
ciples, the  one  of  good.,  the  other  of  evil"? 

Yes;  for  good  and  evil,  or  pleasure  and  pain, 
exist.  Nature  universally  presents  opposites 
to  the  view,  and  every  individual  even  feels 
these  ia  his  own  interior,  among  his  sentiments. 
Now  man,  who  by  one  faculty  seeks  for  the 
cause  of  every  effect,  and  by  another  person- 
ifies every  thing  even  to  causes,  could  not  ad- 
mit one  and  the  same  cause  for  both  good 
and  evil. 

Is  Monotheism,  or  the  system  of  one  Su- 
preme Being,  more  reasonable  than  Polytheism 
and  the  belief  in  two  principles? 

Belief  in  the  unity  of  God  is  the  only  notion 
that  agrees  with  the  supreme  law  of  reason. 
This  belief,    therefore,  spreads  abroad  among 


124  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

the  nations,  In  proportion  as  they  become  en- 
lightened. 

Which  of  the  two^  Monotheism  or  Polythe- 
ism^ nas  most  probably  the  first  religious  belief 
amons:  savao-e  nations? 

Polytheism.  To  arrive  at  Monotheism,  it  is 
necessary  to  reason;  but  the  feelings  or  affec- 
tive faculties  exist  in  greater  activity  than  the 
powers  of  analysis  and  causation  in  civilized, 
and  still  more  among  savage  nations.  It  is  con- 
sequently probable,  that  the  religious  sentiments 
acted  before  the  intellectual  facuhies  had  receiv- 
ed any  cultivation,  and  in  their  blindness  gave 
birth  to  the  absurdities  of  paganism.  This  is 
the  course  in  which  the  people,  whose  histories 
we  know,  have  advanced,  during  the  different 
epochs  of  their  civilization,  audit  has  proba- 
bly been  that  of  those  nations,  of  whose  origin 
or  infant  existence  no  account  has  reached  us. 

Is  general  consent  given  to  the  above  reply? 

No;  Monotheism  is  commonly  believed  to 
have  degenerated  into  Polytheism,  by  reason  of 
the  symbols  under  which  the  Supreme  Being 
and  his  attributes  were  adored.  To  God,  it 
is  said,  were  attributed  the  light  and  vivifying 


OF  RELIGION.  125 

power  of  the  sun,  the  abundance  of  a  fertile 
country, &c. — -the  presumed  qualities  of  the 
Deity  were  represented  under  particular  forms 
or  likened  to  natural  objects,  and  ignorance, 
overlooking  their  emblematic  sense,  assumed 
the  mere  Symbols  as  Divinities. 

Hoio  is  the  preceding  reasoning  supported? 
Monotheism,  it  is  asserted,  reigned  in  the  east 
of  Asia,  whilst  in  the  western  world, —in  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Italy,  the  symbols  of  God  having 
been  taken  for  so  many  divinities.  Polytheism 
was  the  religious  belief. 

What  is  overlooked  in  this  explanation  of 
Polytheism? 

The  primary  dispositions  of  man,  and  their 
spontaneous  activity.  Our  ignorance,  too,  of 
the  early  history  of  eastern  nations  is  forgotten. 
It  is  also  extremely  improbable  that  they  alone 
should  have  commenced  by  Monotheism,  all 
the  other  societies  of  Europe,  of  America,  and 
the  Isles,  having  follovv^ed  a  diflerent  course. 

How  have  the  Montoheists  represented  God? 

Philosophers  have  conceived  God  as  a   Su- 
preme, Self-existing,  and  Self-sufficing  Being, 
the  Author  and  Preserver  of  the  Universe. 
11* 


126  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

What  is  the  title  of  the  doctrine  which  re- 
cognisesthe  existence  of  a  supreme ,  maintain^ 
ing,  and  great  First  Cause? 

It  is  called  Deism,  as  its  supporters  are  styl- 
ed Deists  or  Theists.  Some  philosophers, 
however,  have  considered  God  as  a  vivifying 
and  moving  principle,  pervading  all  things. 
This  they  have  called,  Soul  of  the  World.  Ac- 
cording to  them,  the  souls  of  men  are  portions 
of,  or  emanations  from,  the  great  principle, 
which  are  never  lost,  but  quitting  one  body  at 
death  go  immediately  to  animate  another. 

What  is  the  exact  meaning  of  Atheism? 

It  signifies  the  doctrine  which  denies  the 
existence  of  a  God, — Supreme  Creator  and 
Upholder  of  the  Universe.* 

How  may  Atheism  be  accounted  for? 

Atheists  must  necessarily  be  very  rare. 
They  can  only  exist  in  consequence  of  some 
deficiency  in  the  conditions,  by  means  of  which 
man  generally  conceives  a  Supreme  Being;  in 
the  same  way  as  one  is  blind  Irom  birth  when 
the  apparatus  on  which  vision  depends  is  im- 
perfect. 

* '  The  Cool  saith  in  his  heart,  There  is  no  God,'  Psalm 
xiv.  I. 


NATURAL     RELIGION.  127 

What  Religious  systems  are  included  in  the 
division  according  to  the  origin  of  religious 
ideas? 

Isl,  Natural  Religion,  and, 

2d,  Revealed  Religion. 


II. 


OF    NATURAL     RELIGION. 

Does  man,  by  his  reason,  recognise  the  ex- 
istence of  God? 

Man  involuntarily  seeks  for  the  Workman, 
or  Cause  of  all  that  is.  By  reasoning  he  ar- 
rives at  a  First  Cause,  beyond  which  he  can 
conceive  nothing;  this  cause  personified  is 
God. 

Can  man,  by  his  reason,    comprehend  the 
nature  of  God? 

No;  to  know  God,  it  were  necessary  to  he 
his  equal  at  the  least;  an  inferior  being  can 
never  conceive  the  nature  of  one  infinitely  his 
superior.  Indeed,  man  does  not  know  the 
essence  of  any  single  natural  object,  how  then 


128  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

can  he  imagine  that  of  aught  which  is  superna' 
tural? 

Is  man  naturally  inclined  to  religious  ideas7 

There  is  nothing  more  certain.  He  has  in* 
nate  facuhies,  whose  manifestations  depend  on 
certain  parts  of  the  brain,  and  which  induce 
him  to  be  rehgious. 

Can  religious  ideas  be  indifferent  in  their 
nature? 

True  rehgion  being  the  will  of  God,  cannot 
be  indifferent,  and  God  being  all  perfection  and 
bounty  cannot  act  from  mere  arbitrariness. 

Is  it  probable  that  God  in  giving  a  law  to 
man,  has  given  him  also  means  to  understand  it9 

Certainly,  since  without  intellect  neither 
the  law  nor  its  necessity  can  be  conceived. 

Does  natural    religion  admit  of  reasoning? 

Its  regulation  is  subjected  to  reason.  Any 
proposition  subversive  of  universal  hai'mony 
among  the  faculties  is  at  once  to  be  rejected 
as  erroneous. 

Is  not  the  reason  of  man  governed  by  certain 
principles,  agreeably  to  which  it  must  admit  or 
deny  such  and  such  attributes  or  qualities  in 
God? 


NATURAL    RELIGION.  129 

Human  reason  ou2;ht  at  least  to  suppose  all 
the  moral  qualities  in  God,  which  it  exacts  of 
a  just  and  reasonable  man. 

Can  God,  agreeably  to  human  reason,  be  in 
contradiction  with  himself,  improve  by  experi- 
ence, do  aught  at  one  time  and  repent  him  of 
having  done  so  at  a  latter  period? 

No;  according  to  human  reason,  God  is 
perfection  and  intelligence  itself;  his  will  is 
eternal,  and  his  laws  are  unchangeable. 

Ca7i  God  be  partial'] 

Human  reason  says  he  is  all  equity  and  all 
justice;  it  declares  every  exclusionary  idea, 
entertained  in  connexion  with  the  Parent  of  the 
Universe,  as  sacrilegious. 

Can  God  be  cruel'] 

Good  sense  shrinks  from  such  a  conception 
coupled  with  the  name  of  the  great  Author  of 
all.  God  cannot  love  evil,  nor  lend  it  his  coun- 
tenance and  aid. 

Can  God  be  jealous,  envious,  and  vindic- 
tive"] 

All  such  expressions  are  .merely  expedient, 
and  adapted  to  a  hard-hearted  race  of  men. 
Belief  in  God  combined  with  such  ideas,    is 


130  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

an  abomination  in  the  eyes  of  a  rational   and 
moral  being. 

Jf  hy  has  God  been  so  generally  represented 
as  a  being  to  be  feared? 

Because  fear  is  an  excellent  means  of  mak- 
ing man  act  at  will. 

Is  it  probable  that  the  divine  laivs  made  for 
man  are  adapted  to  his  nature'^ 

It  is  impossible  to  think  that  God,  in  crea- 
ting man  and  instituting  laws  for  his  govern- 
ment, did  not  adjust  the  one  to  the  other. 

God  being  unchangeable,  must,  therefore,  re- 
ligion not  remain  unchanged? 

The  design  and  end  of  religion  must  remain 
unchanged,  but  the  means  tending  to  that  end 
must  vary  according  to  the  different  degree  of 
civilization  of  nations  and  individuals  who  re- 
ceive religious  instruction. 

What  can  be  the  end  of  true  religion? 

The  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of  man. 

Can  divine  laics  be  less  reasonable  than  civil 
laws? 

This  is  impossible,  because  human  wisdom, 
coming  from  God,  cannot  surpass  that  of  his 
all  wise  Creator  and  perfect  law-giver. 


NATURAL  RELIGION.  131 

Which  are  the  powers  of  man  that  are  prop- 
per  tojud^e  of  true  religious  notions? 

Religion  is  a  prerogative  of  man,  hence  all 
religious  notions  should  be  in  conformity  with 
the  human  faculties  strictly  speaking  and  free 
from  every  influence  of  animal  feelings. 

Is  every  one  capable  of  deciding  about  reli- 
gious truth? 

No  more  than  every  person  is  able  to  judge 
of  ar<^s  and  sciences.  The  great  bulk  of  man- 
kind is  only  fit  to  learn;  happy,  therefore,  the 
flock,  under  the  shepherd  who  attends  to  their 
welfare. 

Are  there  some  signs  indicative  of  truth  in 
religion? 

Since  true  religion  tends  to  the  glory  of  God 
and  the  good  of  man,  divine  doctrines  are  har- 
monious, reasonable,  and  have  a  powerful  in- 
fluence to  improve  man's  life  and  moral  char- 
acter, whilst  all  contradictions,  absurdities  and 
doctrines  that  tend  to  promote  vice,  cannot 
come  from  above. 

Is  it  reasonable  to  conceive  God^  trying  men 
and  their  obedience  by  commanding  insignifi- 
cant and  unmeaning  observances^  useless  both 
to  himself  and  to  his  creatures? 


132  NATURAL    LAWS     OF    MAN. 

Such  a  thought  is  altogether  unworthy  of  the 
true  God.  The  idea  of  God's  spreading  toils 
for  man  is  incompatible  with  his  divine  justice. 
A  reasonable  master  commands  no  more  than 
the  necessary,  the  profitable  and  the  just  to 
his  servants.  And  if  God  be  prescient,  as 
reason  proclaims,  he  cannot  require  to  put 
mankind  to  the  proof.  It  is  time  to  cease  from 
representing  God  as  a  mere  human  being;  or 
if  this  be  indeed  impossible,  let  us  suppose  the 
Supreme  Author  of  the  universe  at  least  en- 
dowed with  such  qualities  as  are  exacted  from 
tolerably  perfect  humanity — Benevolence, Jus- 
tice, Reason.  The  will  of  God  impHcates  re- 
ahties  and  things  indispensable;  instead  there- 
fore of  attributing  to  the  Creator  childish  fantas- 
ies and  modes  of  acting  to  which  worse  names 
might  with  justice  be  applied,  let  us  accom- 
plish his  natural  laws,  fulfil  the  duties  that  prof- 
it ourselves  and  all  mankind,  and  thus,  if  by 
aught  we  may  render  ourselves  agreeable  to 
the  great  Author  of  cur  being. 

Is  the  belief  ivJ lie h  men  have  in  GocVs  attri-  . 
hutes^  of  ^reat  importance^ 

Of  the  greatest;   since  men  hke  to   imitate 
the  example  of  their  maker- 


NATURAL    RELIGION.  lo3 

Is  outward  loorship  conceivable  in  J^atural 
Relipon? 

In  recognising  supernatural  agents,  or  one 
Supreme  Being,  and  their  influence  on  his  es- 
tate, man  was  naturally  led  to  render  them  ho- 
mage, and  to  demand  their  protection.  Far- 
ther, in  endowing  the  objects  of  his  worship 
with  human  quaHiies,  often  with  human  weak- 
nesses,and  even  with  human  vices, man  has  treat- 
ed them  humanly ;  he  has  assigned  them  abodes, 
especially  in  elevated  situations,  he  has  erect- 
ed altars  to  their  service,  and  brought  them 
propitiatory  offerings  of  various  kinds,  he  has 
sung  them  laudatory  hymns ,  played  on  musical 
instruments, and  burnt  perfumes  for  their  grati- 
fication, &c.  &c.  Man  has  always  anthro^- 
pomorphised  the  divinity  he  adored. 

Was  it  also  natural  for  man  to  imagine 
agents  intermediate  between  him  and  his  Crea- 
tor") 

Yes;  in  representing  God  as  endowed  with 
human  faculties,  men  have  deemed  him  acces- 
sible to  all  their  wants,  as  well  as  alive  to  all 
their  pleasures  and  appetites.  They  conse- 
quently supposed  that  the  Supreme  Being, 
12 


134  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

like  an  earthly  potentate,  held  a  court,  and  had 
a  ministry  or  a  iministration  to  which  he  confid- 
ed part  of  his  affairs,  that  he  had  favorites  to 
whom  his  ear  was  more  open  than  to  them- 
selves, and  so  on,  after  the  manner  of  things 
below. 

In  JSTatiiral  Religion  what  is  the  loorship 
which  reason  approves? 

Reason  says  that  God,  being  all  perfection 
in  himself,  can  neither  gain  nor  lose  in  beati- 
tude by  means  of  the  terrestrial  creation.  Rea- 
son says  further,  that  God  must  be  a  spirit,  not 
shut  up  in  any  one  place,  but  that  the  earth — 
the  universe — is  his  tabernacle.  Moreover, 
reason  says  that  God  created  men  for  their 
own  happiness,  and  that  having  estabhshed  the 
laws  necessary  to  secure  this  end,  they  are  the 
true  bond  of  union  between  God  and  man. 
Knowledge  of  the  natural  laws, therefore, and  un- 
reserved submission  to  their  dictates,  compose 
the  natural  worship  which  man  owes  and  must 
render  to  make  himself  agreeable  to  the  Deity. 

Is  there  any  difference  between  J\'*atural  Re- 
ligion and  JWitural  Morality? 

None  whatever.    All  the  relation  which  man, 


REVEALED   RELIGION.  135 

during  the  term  of  this  hfe,  has  with  God  or  his 
Creator,  consists  in  respect  and  obedience  to 
His  laws. 


III. 

OF    REVEALED    RELIGION. 

Man  is  by  his  nature  carried  to  religious 
ideas;  but  there  is  another  source  nhich  invites 
to  such  conceptions,  is  there  not? 

Yes,  it  is  Revelation. 

Is  this  source  fertile  in  results? 

Yes;  by  far  the  greater  number  of  religious 
systems  have  been  received  as  revelations. 
The  divinities  of  the  ancients,  and  the  Deity, 
by  whatever  title  designated,  of  the  moderns, 
are  reputed  lo  have  manifested  their  Will, 
wlieiher  directly  or  indirectly,  to  man.  Judg- 
es in  Israel,  Druids  among  the  Celts,  Incas 
among  the  Peruvians, — in  a  word,  a  priesthood 
have  always  been  the  interpreters  of  the  celes- 
tial decrees.  This  body  commonly  received 
the  instructions  of  heaven  secreily,  or  in  sym- 


13G  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

bolic  language,  and  appropriating  to  itself  the 
right  of  interpreting  them,  it  has  ever  taught 
dogmatically,  arrogated  infallibility  to  its  tribu- 
nal, and  anathematized  whoever  dared  to  con- 
tiadict,  to  question,  or  to  doubt. 

Is  reason  opposed  to  the  belief  in  Revelation? 

No;  Reason  is  obliged  to  admit  a  Creator, 
and  cannot  limit  his  almighty  power. 

Do  all  the  systems  of  religion  received  as  re- 
vealed^ and  lohich  admit  one  only  God^  inva- 
riably represent  him  in  the  same  way? 

No;  some  of  them  attribute  physical  quali- 
ties to  the  Supreme  Being;  the  Mahometans, 
for  instance,  conceive  him  to  be  round,  im- 
mense, and  cold;  the  Indian  Gentiles,  imagine 
him  as  an  oval;  others  picture  him  as  an  old 
man  with  a  white  beard  and  a  venerable  aspect, 
&,c.  Those  systems  of  Religion  which  accord 
most  with  reason,  speak  of  God  as  an  incor- 
poreal Being — -a.  Spirit. 

And  do  alVthe  religions  that  recognise  God 
as  a  Spirit  J  conceive  him  endowed  with  similar 
attributes? 

Far  from  it;  by  one  he  is  represented  as  par- 


REVEALED    RELIGION.  137 

tial,  exclusive,  jealous,  vindictiv-e,  cruel,  a 
God  of  armies  and  battles,  delighting  in  the 
blood  of  victims  and  of  enemies;  by  another  he 
is  pictured  as  full  of  goodness,  beneficence, 
clemency,  and  mercy,  a  God  of  peace  and  of 
love,  rejoicing  in  the  felicity  of  all. — Men  com- 
monly attribute  to  the  Supreme  Being  their 
own  manners  of  thinking  and  of  feehng  their 
animal  and  human  nature; — this  is  even  appa- 
rent in  the  interpretations  of  the  several  grand 
systems  of  rehgion,  i.  e.  in  the  formation  of 
sects  The  controversies  of  theologians  on 
God  and  his  nature,  on  his  communication 
with  man,  and  on  the  mode  in  which  he  Tules 
the  universe,  are  very  voluminous,  and  there 
are  innumerable  schools  of  religion,  each  of 
which  assigns  grounds,  more  or  less  plausible, 
for  its  dissent  from  the  others;  in  general,  how- 
ever, they  are  evidently  entangled  in  a  laby- 
rinth of  contradiction  and  inconsequence. 

Are  there  not  some  z^eneral  points  of  resem- 
blance between  all  systems  of  religion? 

There  are.  1st,  In  each  the  articles  of  be- 
lief are  propounded  as  the  commands  of  heav- 
en. 

12=* 


138  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

2cl,  The  articles  of  faith  are  essentially  the 
same,  but  variously  modified  according  to  the 
genius  of  each;  they  relate  to  a  beginning,  or 
creation  of  the  world,  to  one  or  more  regu- 
lating causes  of  occurring  phenomena,  to  a 
primary  state  of  perfection  of  man  as  created 
by  a  good  principle,  to  his  degeneration,  or 
fall  throug!!  disobedience,  to  a  cause  of  his  se- 
duction, t  his  disgrace  and  punishment,  to 
the  possibility  of  his  repurificatlon  and  restor- 
ation to  divine  favor,  and  lastly,  to  his  future 
state. 

3d,  They  who  made  known  the  articles  of  a 
revelation,  have  uniformly  attested  their  mis- 
sion by  the  working  of  miracles;  these  are  the 
testimonials  of  prophets. 

4th,  The  language  used  in  all  is  figurative, 
or  symbolical. 

5th,  Almost  all  are  intolerant  and  mutually 
exclusive;  a  circumstance  which  arises  from 
the  innate  feelings  of  self-esteem  and  firmness 
in  man  and  from  its  being  evident  that  as  there 
is  only  one  God,  only  one  religion  can  pos- 
sibly be  true. 

Whence  does  this  sameness  arise? 


REVEALED      RELIGION.  139 

It  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  sameness 
of  the  mnate  powers  and  by  inferring  a  primi- 
tive revelation  of  the  divine  will,  adapted  to 
the  innate  faculties  of  man,  which  being  essen- 
tially the  same,  necessarily  require  and  deter- 
mine similar  modes  of  satisfaction.  All  nations 
have  music  according  to  the  same  laws,  and 
dances  in  accordance  with  their  music;  pride 
is  everywhere  greedy  of  command,  and  vani- 
ty of  display.  The  same  invariable  law  applies 
to  religious  sentiments  in  combination  with  the 
other  primary  powers  of  the  mind. 

When  ice  see  that  the  several  faculties  which 
dispose  men  to  be  religious  are  innate,  does  not 
revelation  become  superJliious9 

By  no  means.  All  the  natural  inclinations 
have  gone  astray,  and  have  a  continual  tenden- 
cy to  err  in  their  application,  and  revelation, 
in  giving  them  a  good  positive  direction,  may 
be  eminently  salutary. 

Are  all  the  religious  systems ^lohich  are  con- 
sidered as  revealed,  and  believed  at  the  same 
time,  true? 

This  is  impossible.  As  there  is  but  one  God, 
there  can  be  but  one  supreme  will,  and  one 
true  religion. 


140  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

Has  the  phrenologist  a  right  or  is  it  incum- 
bent upon  him  to  decide  about  the  truth  of  any 
religous  belief) 

Neither  the  one,  nor  the  other.  His  knowl- 
edge is  confined  to  the  result  of  the  innate  dis- 
positions,but  the  certainty  of  revelation  depends 
on  proofs  of  another  nature  beyond  the  reach 
of  phrenology. 

HoiD  are  the  religions^  regarded  by  their  dis- 
ciples as  revealed^  commonly  supported? 

It  is  customary  to  repose  on  the  veracity  ol  \ 
the  prophets   who  report  the  revelation,  and 
they  themselves  are  required  to  work  miracles 
in  order  to  attest  their  mission. 

What  is  a  miracle? 

A  miracle  is  a  suspension  or  counteraction 
of  the  established  laws  of  nature.  It,  therefore, 
implies  the  power  of  God, — the  abiH;y  to  cre- 
ate, and  to  interrupt  or  suspend  the  current  of 
things,  to  annihilate, to  diminish, and  to  augment 
matter,  to  still  the  waves  of  the  sea,  to  liush 
the  winds,  to  cure  distempers  by  words,  and 
so  on. 

Can  the  title  ^absurd""  ever  be  well  applies 
in  connexion  with  miracles? 


REVEALED      RELIGION.  141 

No;  for  whatever  man  pretends  to  effect  in 
contradiction  to  the  laws  of  creation  is  decep- 
tion. Thus  it  is  impossible  to  put  the  moon 
into  the  sleeve  of  a  coat,  as  Mahomet  boasted 
he  had  done. 

Why  have  revelations  always  been  made  in 
symbolic  and  mysterious  language? 

The  majority  of  mankind  are  fond  of  the 
marvellous,  and  in  addressing  them  through  its 
medium,  a  hearing  is  surely  and  readily  obtain- 
ed. The  most  palpable  absurdities,  the  gross- 
est superstitions,  are  admitted  by  the  ignorant^ 
provided  they  be  but  proposed  as  supernatural, 
and  be  deeply  tinged  with  the  marvellous- 
Enlightened  men,  too,  who  formed  just  and  rea- 
sonable ideas  of  the  Supreme  Being,  of  his  at- 
tributes, and  of  man's  relations  with  him,  have 
generally  been  obliged  to  conform  in  public  to 
the  prevalent  state-system  of  rehgion,  and  they 
therefore  invented  a  language  of  symbols,  by 
means  of  which  they  maintained  their  private 
opinions,  entrusting  the  initiated  only  with  the 
key  to  its  interpretation.  Besides,  the  oriental 
tongues  abound  in  metaphors,  comparisons, 
^nd  figurative  expressions,  which  translated  lit- 


142  NATURAL    LAWS  OF    MAN. 

erally  into   modern   languages,   lose   entirely 
their  primary  significations. 

TFhat  is  the  conclusion  to  be  dr  men  from  the 
foregoing  reply^ 

That  we  are  not  to  rest  satisfied  with  mere 
literal  interpretations  of  religious  language,  but 
that  we  must  search  for  its  spirit.  The  apos- 
tle said  long  ago,  'the  letter  kills,  but  the  spir- 
it vivifies.' 

Can  a  truly  divine  revelation  interdict  the 
use  of  reason^ 

Reason  is  the  noble  gift  by  w^hich  the  Cre- 
ator has  distinguished  man  from  all  other  ani- 
mated things.     Now  it  w^ould  be  a  most  unrea- 
sonable act,  first  to  endow  a  being  with  any  fac- 
ulty, and  then  to  prohibit  its  use.   Such  a  pro- 
cedure would  be,  if  possible,  more  absurd  in 
reference  to  the  most  distinguished  and  enno- 
bling of  all  the  powers  of  the  mind.   Moreover, 
God,  who  is  all  wisdom  aad  all  reason,  coulc 
never  create  man  in  his  own  likeness,  as  it  i?. 
said   he  did,  and  then  forbid  the  employmen 
of  the  very  faculties  which  must  form  a  princi 
pal  feature  in  the  resemblance. 

Can  God  contradict  himself? 


REVEALED    RELIGION.  14S 

This  is  impossible,  his  will  being  p3rfection 
of  virtue  and  his  sense  of  right  and  consistency 
being  the  strongest.  God  therefore  cannot 
contradict  in  revelation  what  he  teaches  in  his 
works,  nor  can  he  contradict  in  one  part  of 
scripture  what  he  teaches  at  another. 

What  inference  may  de  drawn  from  the  pre- 
ceding  answer^ 

Known  truth  derived  from  observation  and 
experience  must  restrain  and  modify  the  scrip- 
tural language,  and  every  interpretation  must 
be  given  up  which  contradicts  any  physical 
truth,  particularly  since  the  scriptural  language 
is  singularly  figurative  and  no  where  affects  the 
precision  of  science  or  the  accuracy  of  defini- 
tion. 

Is  belief  the  best  means  of  proving  the  truth 
of  a  revealed  system  of  religion'? 

It  is  certain  that  all  religions  whatsoever  are 
propped  upon  belief.  It  is  equally  certain 
that  behef  depends  on  feehngs  rather  than  on 
intellect  and  that  men  are  very  ready  to  be- 
lieve when  their  tastes  are  flattered,  when 
they  are  met  by  promises  that  are  agreeable  to 
their  desires. — There  are  nearly  as  many  Ma- 


144  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

hometans  as  Christians  in  the  world,  and  all 
good  Mussulmen  believe  firmly,  that  their 
prophet  put  the  moon  into  the  sleeve  of  his 
coat.  From  this  it  is  evident,  tliat  simple  be- 
lief cannot  demonstrate  the  truth  of  any,  how- 
ever generally  accredited,  system  of  religion. 

Besides  belief,  is  there  any  other  mode  of  de- 
monstrating the  truth  of  a  revelation^ 

Yes;  there  are  proofs  founded  on  the  nature 
of  the  revealed  doctrine  itself,  and  that  are  ap- 
proved by  reason.  Thus, the  precepts  that  come 
from  God  must  necessarily  harmonize,  they 
must  be  adapted  to  human  nature,  and  they 
must  produce  salutary  effects.  It  is  impossi- 
ble to  suppose  that  God  gives  mankind  laws 
whose  tendency  is  injurious  to  them. 

Can  true  reli^^ion  exclude  morality'^ 

This  seems  impossible  to  those  who  have 
arrived  at  refined  notions  of  an  all  perfect  Be- 
ing, and  who  place  their  most  acceptable  wor- 
ship in  actions  producing  every  one's  own 
happiness  in  harmony  w  ith  that  of  his  neigh- 
bor. They  find  religion  unprofitable,  nay  of- 
ten hurtful,  if  it  be  confined  to  mere  behef  in 
the  divine  appointment  of  prophets;  in  mere 


REVEALED     RELIGION.  145 

miraculous  actions  ofihe  Almighty,  or  in  idle, 
useless,  ridiculous  or  even  mischievous  ob- 
servances, whilst  the  exeriions  of  the  higher 
sentiments  of  man  are  passed  over  as  indiffer- 
ent. 

Can  they  he  received  as  true  prophets^  who 
speak  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
times  in  ichich  they  appear? 

No;  the  spirit  of  God  is  eternally  the  same. 
Reason,  therefore,  unmasks  Mahomet,  who 
accommodated^  the  revelations  of  the  angel 
Gabriel  to  tlie  nature  of  his  designs,  and  even 
rescinded  preceding  communications  entirely, 
if  his  views  required  the  measure. 

Is  it  reasonable  to  doubt  in  religious  mat- 
ters'? and  'if  so^  why'? 

Yes,  it  is;  because  many  assent  to  what  ma- 
ny deny;  and  because  there  have  been  many 
prophesying  cheats,  and  much  prophetic  de- 
ception inflicted  on  the  world.  Caution  is  es- 
pecially necessary  when  the  temporal  interest 
of  the  deceivers  is  joined  with  the  spiritual  in- 
terest of  the  deceived. 

May  false  prophets  and  their  errors  he  more 
readily  and  certainly  detected  by  the  nature  of 
13 


146  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

the  doctrine  they  teach,  or  by  the  belief  they  re- 
ceived 

The  nature  and  doctrine,  and  the  fruits  it 
produces,  afford  the  surest  test  of  its  truth. 

Why  do  the  priesthood  so  commonly  oppose 
the  use  of  reason? 

The  priesthood  have  exacted  blind  behef, 
because  this,  whilst  it  prevents  discussion, 
renders  their  calling  more  imposing,  and  more 
easy;  it  further  secures  them  from  accusation, 
and  cloaks  their  errors  and  selfidi  views. 

What  advantage  is  there  in  proposing  laws 
to  men  as  divine  revelations? 

It  disposes  them  powerfully  to  obedience. 

What  peculiar  condition  of  mankind  is  the 
most  favorable  to  belief  in  general? 

The  state  of  ignorance  which  is  always  cre- 
dulous. They,  therefore,  who  would  lead  the 
nations  bhndfolded,  have  reason  at  least  on 
their  side,  in  opposing  the  cultivation  of  the 
understanding. 

Is  it  a  matter  of  difficulty  to  discover  and  to 
understand  truth? 

The  question  is  rarely  of  either  discrimina- 
ting or  of  understanding;  the  mass  of  mankind 


REVEALED     RELIGION.  147 

admit  what  they  h"ke,  and  what  they  consider 
as  favorable  to  their  interests,  whether  tempo- 
ral or  eternal.  When  the  time  comes  that 
mankind  shall  desire  to  understand  and  to  prac- 
tise what  is  reasonable  and  just,  truth  will  tri- 
umph over  error. 

Is  belief  necessary  in  any  wise9 

Yes;  but  if  religious  doctrines  be  Imposed  as 
obligatory,  the  articles  of  belief  should  be  reas- 
onable and  just,  in  order  that  he  who  is  capable 
of  reflecting,  may  perceive  them  as  true,  and 
ihe  ir  practice  as  tending  to  establish  the  general 
happiness. 

Is  a  religious  doctrine  true  because  of  its 
promising  great  rewards? 

To  promise  largely  is  an  efficient  means  of 
ensuring  its  adoption,  but  this  does  not  in  any 
way  prove  its  truth.  It  ought  to  be  reasonable 
and  advantageous  at  the  same  time;  that  is  to 
say,  it  should  satisfy  both  the  aflective  and  the 
intellectual  faculties  of  man. 

Is  instruction  dangerous  to  morality^ 

Experience  proves  most  amply  that  it  is 
not.  The  history  of  nations,  of  tribes,  and  of 
classes  in  the  different  societies  of  men,  pre- 
senis  the  greatest  number  of  crimes  and  of  im- 


146  NATURAL    LAWS     OP    MAW. 

moral  actions  generally,  during  the  reign  o: 
ignorance,  and  of  superstition  its  attendant. 
Crimes  diminish  not  only  in  frequency,  but  in 
atrocity,  in  proportion  as  the  mind  receives 
cultivation, as  arts  and  sciences  are  encouraged, 
and  as  good  manners  and  gentle  bearing  are 
esteemed  and  rewarded.  Men  must  positive- 
ly be  taught  whatever  it  is  deemed  of  impor- 
tance that  they  should  know\  The  only  ques- 
tion therefore  is,  whether  it  be  more  advan- 
tageous to  instruct  them  in  superstition  and  er- 
ror, or  in  reasonable  religion  and  salutary 
truths. 

Have  religious  dotrines  done  harm  to  man- 
kind'? 

Much,  both  physically  and  morally;  som.e- 
times  by  their  commands,  but  principally  by 
their  inioierance. 

Hoio   can  a  religious  system  work  physical 
evil? 

By  its  provisions  as  to  the  nourishment  of  the 
body  and  the  propagation  of  the  species,  and 
by  countenancing  any  species  of  persecution, 
such  as   the  rack,  dungeon,  stake,  &c.  &c. 

What  is  the  revealed  religion  ivJiich  surpass- 


CHRISTIAN    RELIGION.  149 

€s  all  others  in  every   kin-l  of  perfection^  and 
that  stands  the  scrutiny  ofreason9 
It  is  Pure  Christianity* 


IV. 


OF    CHRISTIANITY. 

Phrenology  hein^  true^  can  it  he  in  opposi- 
tion to  pure  Christianity^ 

This  is  impossible,  as  no  truth  either  physi- 
cal or  moral  can  be  in  opposition  to  any  other. 
Christianity  and  Phrenology,  when  well  un- 
derstood, will  give  mutual  assistance  to  each 
other. 

Is  the  phrenologist  entV^'d  to  speak  of  Chris- 
tianity^ and  if  so^  hoio  far? 

The  phrenologist  has  the  right  to  examine 
whether  Christianity  is  adapted  to  the  innate 
dispositions  of  man,  and  he  is  delighted  in  see- 
ing it  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  human  na- 
ture. But  he  is  confined  to  the  -examen  of 
.?the  christian  doctrine  in  itself  and  its  superior- 
13* 


150  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

ity  without  being  able  to  decide  about  the  na- 
ture of  the  Revealer;  he  can  speak  only  from 
actual  observations  and  inductions. 

Does  the  Christian  Religion  permit  reason- 
ing9 

Jesus  himself  said,  'Those  who  have  ears 
let  them  hear,'  he  declared  that  light  is  not 
made  to  be  hidden,  but  to  enlighten;  and  he 
reproached  his  own  disciples  for  being  without 
understanding.  (Matt,  xv.)  Paul  also  says, 
'  I  speak  as  to  wise  men,  judge  ye  what  I 
say.'  (1  Cor.  x.  15.)  And  again,  'Prove  all 
things,  hold  fast  that  which  is  good. '  (1  Thess. 
V.  21.)  *  Beloved,'  says  John,  'believe  not 
every  spirit,  but  try  the  spirits  whether  they 
are  of  God.'    (1  John.  iv.  1.) 

Does  not  Christianity  recur  to  reasoning  in 
order  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  God? 

It  does.  For  '  every  house,'  says  Paul  to 
the  Hebrews,  chap.  iii.  ver.  4,  'has  been 
builded  by  some  man,  but  he  that  built  all 
things  is  God.' 

In  what  manner^  according  to  Christianity, 
does  God  make  hi wself  manifest? 

The  invisible  perfections  of  God,  his  eter- 


CHRISTIAN    RELIGION.  151 

nal  power  and  his  divinity,  appear  in  the  works 
of  creation.  (Rom.  i.  20.) 

IVhat  are  the  chief  attributes  of  God,  as  de- 
fined by  Christianity? 

God  is  a  spirit.  (John  iv.  24.)  He  is  love. 
(1  John  iv.  16.)  He  is  just  and  impartial,  and 
regards  not  appearances  nor  persons.  (Rom. 
ii.  11.)  He  rewards  each  according  to  his 
works.  (Rom.  ii.);  desires  only  good,  and 
wills  only  the  happiness  of  his  creatures. 
(New  Testament,  passim.) 

How  may  the  doctrine  of  Christianity  be  di- 
vided? 

Into  two  principal  parts,  the  one  marvellous, 
the  other  moral. 

In  what  does  the  marvellous  part  of  Christian- 
ity consist? 

It  includes  w^hatever  is  incomprehensible, 
whatever  is  beyond  the  hmits  of  observa- 
tion;— such  as  the  nature  of  God,  the  creation 
of  the  world  by  his  will,  his  influence  upon 
his  creatures,  his  communication  with  men 
the  birth  and  miraculous  actions  of  Jesus,  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the  rewards  and 
punishments  in  the  life  to  come. 

This  part  of  Christianity  requires  belief? 


152  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

It  depends  eniirely  upon  belief;  for  the  points 
of  which  it  is  composed  cannot  be  submitted 
to  present  observation. 

How  does  belief  in  these  incomprehensible 
matters  become  efficacious  and  profitable? 

When  it  induces  the  behever  to  practise  the 
Christian  virtues.  It  is  necessary,  says  Paul, 
to  have  'faith  which  worketh  by  love.'  fGal. 
V.  6.)  'Faith,'  says  James,  'if  it  have  not 
works,  is  dead  in  itself.'  (James  ii.  16,  26.) 
Christianity  calls  us  to  be  perfect  as  our  Father 
in  heaven  is  perfect. 

Have  all  Christian  societies  agreed  upon  the 
marvellous  part  of  their  doctrine? 

No;  this  part  has  produced  continual  dissen- 
sions among  Christians,  and  so  long  as  any  in- 
dividual shall  dare  to  think  and  to  interpret  for 
himself,  these  must  continue.  It  is  this  part 
of  Chiislianity  also  which  has  often  been  the 
cause  and  always  served  as  the  pretext,  for  in- 
tolerance, and  persecution  on  account  of  opin- 
ions. 

What  is  to  be  concluded  from  this? 

That  every  man  should  be  allowed  to  follow 
the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience,  and  to  be- 


CHRISTIAN    RELIGION.  153 

lieve  whatever  he  conceives  is  true,  provided 
the  pubhc  tranquillity  be  not  disturbed, and  the 
moral  part  of  Christianity  do  not  suffer. 
Is  this  conclusion  reasonable? 
Is  it  in  complete  harmony  with  reason, and  in 
conformity  with  the  moral  injunctions  of  Chris- 
tianity, which  command  the  preaching  of  the 
truth,  but  strictly  prohibit  all  persecution.  'Go 
ye,'  said  Jesus  to  his  disciples,  'into  all  the 
world,  and  preach  the  gospel  to  every  creature. 
And  whoever  shall  not  receive  you,  nor  hear 
your  w^ords,  when  ye  depart  out  of  that  house 
or  city, shake  off  the  dust  of  your  feet.' — The 
induction  is  the  more  reasonable,  too,  in  as 
much  as  the  Christian  doctrine  assures  us  that 
every  one,  at  the  final  judgment,  will  have  to 
render  an  account  of  his   talents   and  of  his 

deeds. 

Ill  what  does  Christian  morality  consist? 

The  whole  of  it  is  reducible  to  two  grand 
commandments,  viz.  Love  God  with  your 
whole  soul^'  and,  ^Loveyour  neighbor  as  your- 
self.'     (Matt.  xxii.  37.  39.) 

W  Jiat  is  understood  by  the  ^ Love  of  GodV 
'This  is  Love  of  God,  that  we   keep     his 
commandments.'     (1  John  v.  3.) 


154  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN, 

Can  we,  humanly  speakings  Hove  God,^  such 
as  he  is  represented  in  the  gospel? 

Every  rational  and  noble  mind  must  love  a 
God  of  peace,  of  goodness,  of  clemency,  and 
of  justice;  a  God  who  has  compassion  on 
our  weaknesses,  and  who  makes  the  sun  to 
shine,  and  the  rain  to  descend,  even  on  those 
who  obey  not  his  will;  a  God  who  gives  the 
breaker  of  his  law  time  for  repentance;  who 
desires  universal  happiness;  who  gives  the 
same  laws  to  the  whole  human  kind  indiffer- 
-ently ;  and  who  will  mercifully  judge  each  by 
his  works,  without  respect  of  persons. 

Is  the  observance  of  certain  symbolic  forms 
sufficient  to  constitute  a   Christian? 

Far  from  it;  though  many,  indeed,  think  it 
is.  Forms  are  not  the  end  of  Christianity, 
they  are  mere  means  of  engendering  and  nour- 
ishing a  Christian  spirit. 

The  Christian  morality  in  commanding 
love  to  God,  implies  in  this  entire  submission 
to  the  will  of  the  Creator,  does  it  not? 

Conviction  of  the  extent  and  importance  of 
this  commandment  is  of  prime  necessity. 
That  the  will  of  the  Father — God,   is  to  be 


CHRISTIAN    RELIGION.  155 

done  on  earth  as  it  is  done  in  heaven,  is  an 
injunction  clearly  set  forth.  The  proj3riety  of 
distinguishing  between  the  laws  of  God  and 
the  enactments  of  men,  is  thus  proclaimed. 
Jesus  also  said,  that  he  could  do  nothing  which 
he  had  not  seen  done  by  his  Father,  and  he 
declared  that  only  they  who  did  the  will  of  God 
were  his  brothers,  sisters,  or  mother. 

Does  the  will  of  God  comprise    the  laws  of 
creation,  that  is  to  say,  the  natural  laios? 

Undoubtedly;  because  God  and  the  Creator 
are  one.  Man  indeed  can  create  nothing;  en- 
dowed wath  understanding  to  observe  phenom- 
ena, and  the  conditions  under  which  they  oc- 
cur, he  can,  how^ever,  imitate  in  some  degree, 
that  which  the  Creator  shows  him;  in  other 
w^ords,  he  can  prepare  the  conditions  neces- 
sary to  elicit  determinate  effects;  but  he  is 
still  dependent  on  the  laws  of  the  Creator  for 
the  success  of  his  undertakings.  Jesus  said, 
'My  doctrine  is  not  mine,  but  his  that  sent 
me.'  (John  vii.) 

Is  there  a  difference  between  the  belief  in  the 
natural  laws  and  that  of  Christianity '7 

Those  who  merely  beheve  in  the  fixed  or- 


156  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

der  of  nature  admit  in  the  Creator  a  regard  to 
general  good  rather  than  an  afiection  to  indi- 
viduals. They  find  the  natural  laws  operating 
with  an  inflexible  tardiness  and  never  varying 
to  meet  the  wants  of  individuals,  whilst  Cliris- 
tianity  represents  God  as  a  Father  endowed 
with  parental  tenderness  towards  his  offspring, 
and  pardoning  the  sinner.  Further,  the  belief 
in  the  Ordinary  Course  of  Providence  does 
not  clearly  conceive  the  reality  of  a  future  ex- 
istence, whilst  Christianity  promises  and  as- 
sures us  of  our  immortality.  Indeed,  if  man  is 
to  live  again,  he  is  not  to  hve  through  any 
known  laws  of  nature,  but  by  a  power  higher 
than  nature. 

Having  seen  in  an  early  part  of  this  book,* 
that  there  are  three  kinds  of  natural  laws,  viz. 
vegetative,  intellectual,  and  moral  laws,  which 
of  these  is  the  most  important  in  the  view  of 
Christianity? 

The  knowledge  and  practice  of  the  moral 

laws.     Jesus  says,  that   his  followers    are   to 

shine  before  men,  by  the  light  of  their  good 

works.     (Matt,  v.)     He   placed   morality  so 

*See  page  16. 


CHRISTIAN  RELIGION.  157 

far  above  every  thing  else,  that  some  have  im- 
agined his  aim  to  have  been  the  annihilation 
of  the  physical  and  intellectual  laws  of  man. 

What  is  the  decision  of  good  sense  in  this 
particular'? 

It  recognises  the  moral  laws  as  superior  to 
the  others;  assigns  them  the  direction  of  all 
our  actions;  introduces  harmony  among  the 
functions  that  respectively  constitute  the  mor- 
al, the  intellectual,  and  the  vegetative  laws  of 
man,  and  it  declares  that  nothing  which  God 
has  created  is  ever  to  be  neglected,  much  less 
to  be  annihilated. 

Is  beliefs  or  avoical  of  belief,  in  the  mission  of 
Jesus,  sufficient  to  constitute  a  Christian? 

To  be  a  Christian,  it  is  not  enough  to  rec- 
ognise Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God,  the  Redeem- 
er of  Man  and  the  interpreter  of  the  will  of 
his  heavenly  Father,  or  even  to  be  con- 
versant with  his  commandments,  it  is  indis- 
pensably necessary  to  act  upon  the  precepts  he 
taught.  'He  that  hath  my  commandments, 
and  keepeth  ihem,  he  it  is  that  loveth  me.' 
(John  xiv.)  'Not  every  one  who  sayeth  into 
me,  Lord,  Lord,  shall  enter  into  the  kingdont 
14 


158  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

of  heaven, but  he  that  doeth  the  will  of  my  Fath- 
er.' (Matt,  vii.)  'If  ye  keep  my  command- 
ments, ye  shall  abide  in  my  love,  even  as  I  have 
kept  my  Father's  commandments,  and  abide  in 
his  love.'  (John  xv.)  These  are  the  Master's 
own  words.  Paul,  too,  says,  'The  kingdom 
of  God  is  not  in  word  but  in  power,'  i.e.  deed. 
(1  Cor.  iv.) 

What  is  the  law  which ^  although  included 
under  the  general  title^  Love  God,  Jesus  re- 
commended in  a  particular  manner^ 

It  is  the  law  of  neighborly  love :  Thou  shalt 
love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself, — do  unto  others 
as  ye  would  that  they  did  unto  you,  and  do  not 
to  others  the  things  ye  would  not  that  they 
did  to  you. 

Is  the  Urn  of  neighborly  love  of  very  exten- 
sive application') 

It  is  the  universal  rule  of  conduct  in  all  the 
relations  of  man  with  his  fellow-men.  They 
who  practise  it  will  never  oflend  nor  injure  any 
one;  they  will  exert  their  utmost  ability  to  re- 
scind arbitrary  and  unjust  enactments,  to 
crush  tyranny,  and  to  abolish  slavery  of  every 
description;  they  will  not  live  at  the  expense 
of  others;  they  will  be  meek,  indulgent,  benev- 


CHRISTIAN  RELIGION.  159 

olent,  just  and  faithful;  they  will  never  swerve 
from  the  path  of  peace,  nor  ever  lose  sight 
of  general  happiness  as  the  end  of  their  being. 
And  to  be  a  Christian  is  it  necessary  to  prac- 
tise thislaio? 

It  is  an  indispensable  condition  to  be  so  con- 
sidered. To  say  otherwise  would  either  be  to 
deceive  ourselves,  or  to  be  guilty  of  hypocrisy. 
The  law  is  clearly  expressed.  Jesus  frequent- 
ly admonished  his  disciples  to  distinguish 
themselves  by  their  love  of  each  other. 

Is  it  easy  or  difficult  to  accomplish  the  law 
of  neighborly  love9 

Jesus  announced  the  law  as  the  will  of  his 
heavenly  Parent,  and  he  exacts  its  fulfilment, 
even  though  it  require  the  aid  of  resolution; 
^because,'  says  he,  'no  man  putting  his  hand 
to  the  plough,  and  looking  back,  is  fit  for  the 
kingdom  of  God.'  (Luke  ix.)  And  he  adds, 
^When  we  have  accomplished  all  that  is  com- 
manded, we  have  done  no  more  than  our  duty.' 
He  has,  however,  avowed,  that  it  is  extreme- 
ly difiicultto  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven, 
and  that  there  is  no  perfectly  just  man  in  the 
world.  The  brethren  of  Jesus  did  not  beheve 
in  him.  (John  vii.  5.) 


160  NATURAL    LAWS  OF    MAN. 

Is  it  equally  difficult  for  all  men  to  be  Chris- 
tians9 

It  is  more  easy  for  the  poor  than  for  th© 
rich  to  love  their  neighbors  as  themselves.  It 
was  especially  to  the  poor  that  Christ  brought 
the  good  tidings.  He  has  positively  declaied 
that  it  is  extremely  difficult  for  a  rich  man  tQ 
enter  the  kingdom  of  God.   (Matt.  xix.  23.) 

Can  ice,  in  the  enjoyment  of  privileges ^ 
love  ourneis^hbor  as  ourselves^ 

Good  sense  replies  in  the  negative. 

Are  Christians  authorised  by  their  doctrine 
to  take  or  reclaim  by  force  that  which  others 
enjoy,  in  opposition  to  the  law  of  neighborly 
love? 

By  no  means;  they  are  forbidden  to  do  evil 
to  any  one,  or  to  use  violence  in  any  way.  They 
form  a  class  apart,  and  never  serve  as  instru- 
ments in  oppressive  or  exclusionary  schemes; 
among  them, there  is  neither  master, nor  servant, 
nor  slave;  they  know  but  two  grades  or  ranka 
in  their  community, — accomplished  Christians, 
and  disciples,  and  the  accomplished  disciple 
attains  the  same  footing  as  his  teacher;  (Luke 
vi.)  they  recognise  each  of  their  members  as 


CHRISTIAN  RELIGION.  161 

possessed  of  particular  gifts,  but  these  all  em- 
ploy agreeably  to  the  law  of  neighborly  love; 
each  is  only  answerable  for  the  talents  entrus- 
ted to  his  care;  and,  taking  advantage  of  them 
in  this  spirit,  all  have,  as  all  only  require,  the 
same  recompense.  'Christians,'  says  Paul  to 
the  Romans,  'form  a  body  and  many  members; 
they  have  different  gifts,  but  each  employs 
that  he  possesses  in  union  and  in  charity.' 

Is  the  formation  of  a  Christian  society  pos- 
sible9 

Not  among  men  as  they  are  at  present  consti- 
tuted. The  law  of  neighborly  love  is  subhme, 
and  will  remain  true  to  eternity;  but  it  is  not 
as  yet  given  to  man  to  adhere  to  its  injunc- 
tions. To  do  this,  the  knowledge  and  prac- 
tice of  the  universal  law  of  Christianity,  Do 
the  will  of  God,  in  all  its  details,  is  indispen- 
sable; above  all,  the  laws  of  hereditary  descent 
must  be  enforced,  in  order  to  prepare  mankind 
for  the  reception  of  the  Christian  doctrine  in 
its  purity.     Without  this   course,    the    Holy 

Spirit  will  never  remain  among  mankind. 

Christianity,  in  promising  everlasting    life 
beyond  the  grave ^   does  not    render  temporal 
14* 


162  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

happiness  incompatible  with  the  prospect  of  such 
bliss  J  does  it? 

To  say  yes,  would  be  equivalent  to  saying, 
that  it  is  necessary  to  fall  sick  in  order  to  live 
well.  True,  in  the  actual  state  of  things,  the 
majority  of  mankind  find  the  task  of  adherence 
to  the  natural  laws  extremely  painful;  but  this 
does  not  prove  that  the  Creator  has  willed  it 
so,  or  resolved  its  endurance  forever.  Chris- 
tianity in  directing  the  actions  of  the  innate 
powers  cannot  intend  to  abolish  them,  and 
each  power  when  satisfied  procures  pleas- 
ure and  some  are  given  only  for  the  sake  of 
temporal  happiness. 

In  what  does  the  worship  prescribed  by  Chris- 
tianity principally  consist? 

It  is  reasonable  and  spiritual,  not  consisting 
in  what  is  eaten  or  drunk,  nnr  in  distinctions 
made  between  days;  (Rom.  xiv.)  it  is  a  wdi-- 
ship  which  regards  the  sabbath  as  made  for 
man,  not  man  for  the  sabba;h;  '  for  the  Son 
of  man  is  Lord  also  of  the  sabbath;'  (Mark  ii. 
27.)  a  worship,  according  to  which  the  time 
will  come — the  time  is  even  now  come — ■ 
when  true  adorers  shall  worship  God  in  spirit 


CHRISTIAN    RELIGION.  163 

and  in  truth;  (John  iv.)  a  worship,  in  fine, 
which  teaches  that  God  is  not  served  hy  men's 
hands,  as  if  He  had  need  of  aught, — He  who 
gives  hfe  and  sweet  consciousness  of  being  to 
all,  and  sheds  joy  and  harmony  over  his  crea- 
tion. (Acts  xvii.)  The  vvorship,  in  a  word, 
-which  the  true  Christian  pays  to  God,  con- 
sists in  learning  and  practising  his  laws  in  gen- 
eral, and  in  observing  his  ordinance  of  neigh- 
borly love  in  particular. 

Do  the  religious  and  moral  precepts  of  the 
JVe.w  Testament  surpass  those  of  the  Old,  in 
perfection  and  excellence? 

Whoever  will  compare  the  qualities  attribu- 
ted to  the  Supreme  Being,  regard  the  spirit 
of  the  laws  contained,  and  observe  the  means 
proposed  for  teaching  these,  in  each,  must 
inevitably  recognise  the  infinite  superiority  of 
the  doctrines  of  Christianity. 

What  is  the  principal  duty  of  the  teachers 
of  religion  and  morality'? 

To  know  the  universal  law  of  Christianity; 
to  study  its  particular  laws,  to  spread  abroad 
a  knowledge  of  them, and  to  show  their  advan- 
tages to  individuals,  to  existing  communities, 


164  NATURAL    LAWS    OP    MAN. 

and  to  posterity;  lastty,  to  attest  their  own  be- 
lief, by  practising  its  ordinances.  They  are 
to  '  feed  the  flock  of  God  which  is  among 
them,  taking  the  oversight  thereof,  not  by 
constraint,  but  wilhngly,  ngt  for  fihhy  lucre, 
but  of  a  ready  mind;  neither  as  being  lords 
over  God's  heritage,  but  being  ensamples  to 
his  flock.'  (1  Pet.  v.)  Jesus  said  pointedly 
that  his  disciples  were  to  be  known,  and  true 
prophets  distinguished  from  false,  by  ijieir 
fruits.  '  Beware  of  false  prophets,  ye  shall 
know  them  by  their  fruits.  Do  men  gather 
grapes  of  thorns  or  figs  from  thistles?' (Matt, 
vii.) 

What  idea  do  true  Chrisiians  entertain  oj 
Prayer? 

When  they  pray  they  retire  into  their  closet, 
and  when  they  have  shut  the  door,  they  pray, 
above  all,  that  the  will  of  their  heavenly  Fath- 
er may  be  done  on  earih.  (Matt,  v.)  They 
'use  not  vain  repetitions  as  the  heathen  do, 
who  think  they  shall  be  heard  for  their  much 
speaking.'  They  are  assured  that  God  knows 
all  they  require  before  they  present  their  pe- 
tition.     (Matt,  vi.)  True    Christians    do  not 


NATURAL    RELIGION.  165 

suppose  that  they  can  please  the  Almighty  by 
any  kind  of  ceremony,  by  the  burning  of  in- 
^cense,  or  otherwise.  They  admire  the  Cre- 
,ator  in  contemplating  his  works,  in  meditating 
:on  the  laws  which  reign  throughout  the  uni- 
verse; the  further  they  advance  in  knowledge, 
the  more  do  they  ov^erflow  wath  reverence  and 
gratitude;  examine  all  their  actions,  w^hether  or 
not  they  be  in  conformity  with  morality;  they 
strive  to  make  amends  when  they  have  sinned, 
and  they  admit  in  principle  that  God  hstens 
to  them  in  proportion  only  as  they  fulfill  his 
laws,  in  Httle  as  well  as  in  great  things. 

By  what  visible  signs  are  true  Christians, 
or  the  disciples  of  natural  morality,  distin- 
s^uished  from  the  rest  of  mankind? 

By  their  works;  by  their  submission  to  the 
laws  of  the  Creator  in  general,  and  by  their 
practice  of  the  moral  laws  in  particular.  'Ye 
are  my  friends,  said  Jesus,  if  ye  do  whatever 
I  command  you,  (John,  xv.)  It  is  in  this  that 
ye  will  be  known  to  be  my  disciples,  if  ye 
have  love  one  for  another.' 


166  NATURAL    LAWS    Of"    MAN. 

V. 

OF    CHURCH     RELIGION. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  church? 

1st.  It  designates  a  general  society  of  in- 
dividuals professing  the  same  religious  princi- 
ples. 

2d.  It  also  implies  any  special  congregation 
making  part  of  the  general  society.  Churches 
are  then  named  from  the  places  at  which  they 
exist;  as  for  instance,  the  church  of  Corinth, 
the  church  of  Antioch,  of  Ephesus,   &c. 

3d.  It  is  used  to  designate  the  government 
of  religious  matters. 

4th.  It  signifies  the  building  in  which  the  mem- 
bers of  the  society  or  congregation  assemble, 
whether  to  improve  in  knowledge  of  their  reli- 
gious principles,  to  address  prayers  to  God,  to 
sing  hymns  to  his  praise,  to  return  thanks  for 
benefits  conferred,  generally  or  particularly,  on 
the  members,  or  to  ofier  adoration  in  any  way 
^vhatever. 

IIoiD  is  the  general  Christian  church  entitled? 

It  is  called  Catholic. 


CHURCH    RELIGION.  167 

*Bre  there  more  catholic  churches  than  one9 

Several  have  at  least  taken  the  title.  They 
are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  adding 
the  name  of  the  country  or  town  where  they 
severally  commenced,  or  flourish.  Thus  there 
is  a  Roman  cathoHc  church,  a  Greek  catholic 
church,  an  Anglican  catholic  church,  and  so 
on. 

Can  the  special  societies  of  the  general  or 
catholic  churches  follow  principles  differing 
respectively^ 

It  is  evident  that  congregations  admitting 
different  principles,  do  not  constitute  parts  of 
one  catholic  church. 

Can  several  churches  he  catholic  in  one  re- 
spect and  divided  in  others^ 

Yes;  all  ^vhich  believe  in  the  mission  of  Je- 
sus and  in  his  miracles,  are  members  of  one 
catholic  church,  in  as  far  as  tbese  points 
are  concerned;  but  they  may  be  divided  into 
many  churches  in  regard  to  the  precepts  ad- 
mitted as  Christian  ordinances. 

Does  the  society  that  changes  its  religious 
principles^  belong  to  the  catholic  church,  of 
which  it  was  a  part? 


168  NATURAL   LAWS    OP   MAN. 

No;  it  forms  a  new  church. 

Ought  there  to  be  superiors  in  any  church9 

Yes;  it  is  well  to  have  persons  especially 
appointed  to  teach  and  to  watch  over  the  ac- 
complishment of  the  principles  they  admit  re- 
spectively. 

Is  any  man  justified  in  commanding  in  the 
name  of  God? 

The  power  of  God  is  absolute,  but  if  man 
arrogate  such  authority,  disorder  is  inevitable. 
The  ministers  of  religion  ought  to  be  respon- 
sible to  the  community  for  every  one  of  their 
religious  interpretations  in  the  same  way  as 
the  ministers  of  civil  governments  are  answer- 
able for  their  measures. 

Can  any  reliance  be  placed  on  the  word  of 
him  whose  actions  are  at  variance  with  his  pre- 


No;  more  especially  if  the  tendency  of  his 
teaching  be  favorable  to  himself  Jesus  said: 
Hf  Ido  not  the  works  of  my  Father^  believe  me 
not.'     (John  x.  37.) 

JVhat  is  the  common  tendency  of  every  es- 
tablished church? 


CHURCH  RELIGION.  169 

The  priesthood  of  every  State-religion  try- 
to  keep  religious  notions  stationary  and  to  main- 
tain the  uniformity  of  discipline. 

Is  it  possible  to  keep  moral  and  religious  no- 
tions stationary  f 

It  may  be  done  by  Theocratical  governments 
for  a  shorter  or  longer  period,  but  it  is  im- 
possible where  civil  and  religious  governments 
constitute  two  separate  powers.  The  prog- 
ress will  be  slow  in  proportion  as  both  sorts 
of  governors  remain  united;  but  views  which 
are  adapted  and  even  necessary  to  ignorant 
generations  cannot  satisfy  enlightened  minds, 
and  must  successively  improve  as  well  as  arts, 
sciences  and  civil  legislation.  The  technical, 
obscure  and  gloomy  theology  which  has 
come  down  from  times  of  ignorance,  super- 
stition and  slavery  must  yield  to  a  system  which 
is  practical,  clear  and  calculated  to  unfold  the 
highest  powers  of  our  understanding  and  our 
Moral  Sentiments. 

Is  Protestantism  compatible  with  the  unifor- 
mity  of  any  religious  doctrines? 

No:  Protestantism  is  founded  on  the  right  of 
reasoning,   and  wherever  this   is  allowed,  the 


170  NATURAL    LAWS    OF    MAN. 

uniformity  of  doctrine  cannot  last,  since  the 
power  of  reasoning  differs  in  degree  in  differ- 
ent persons. 

Is  it  icise  in  the  priesthood  of  established 
churches  to  remain  stationary  whilst  the  nations 
improve  in  civilization? 

If  the  Sacerdocy  do  not  keep  path  in  arts  and 
sciences  with  the  community  at  large,  their  in- 
fluence must  diminish  by  degrees  and  finally 
cease  altogether. 

Since  a  variety  of  religious  sects  is  unavoid- 
hie  wherever  the  free  use  of  reason  is  allowed^ 
what  should  be  their  cominon  tendency? 

Each  sect  should  endeavor  to  establish  har- 
mony in  all  branches  of  knowledge,  physical, 
intellectual,  religious  and  moral. 

Is  it  possible  for  any  chureh  to  become  uni- 
versal and  permanent? 

Yes;  that  church  will  become  universal  and 
lasting  whose  religious  principles  shall  be 
founded  on  a  knowledge  of  the  true  nature  of 
man,  which  shall  establish  harmony  among  all 
the  primary  faculties  of  the  mind,  and  which 
shall  elevate  religion  to  the  rank  of  a  science. 
Every  religious  idea  that  contravenes  reason 
can  only  endure  for  a  time. 


CHURCH    RELIGION.  171 

IVhat  then  should  form  the  ground-work^ 
undwhat  the  aim  of  that  general  religious  ref- 
ormation^ whose  necessity  for  the  ivell  being  of 
man  is  so  evident? 

With  reason  and  belief  in  harmony,  know- 
ledge and  morality  must  be  its  foundation,  and 
the  universal  happiness  its  aim.  In  other 
words,  Christian  morality  ought  to  be  taught 
in  its  purity,  and  become  the  essence  of  reh- 
?;ious  belief.  The  practice  of  the  moral  law 
should  be  a  necessary  obligation  on  every 
member  of  society;  whether  induced  by  rea- 
son or  by  faith,  by  love  or  by  fear,  all  should 
be  bound  to  conform  to  its  precepts.  No 
mystical  conception,  however,  ought  on  any 
account  to  be  arbitrarily  imposed.  Every 
one  should  be  left  free  to  reject  or  to  adopt, 
according  to  conscience,  any  opinion  which  is 
not  at  variance  with  the  true  spirit  of  Chris- 
tian and  natural  morality, — which  is  not  inim- 
ical to  the  general  peace  and  happiness. 


WORKS  OF  THE  SAME  AUTHOR 

REPUBLISH  I:D    IN    BOSTON 
BY    MARSH,    CAPEN    AND    LYON. 

I.  Phrenology  or  the  doctrine  of  the  mental 
phenomena.  Vol.  I.  Physiological  part.  Vol. 
II.  Philosophical  part. 

II.  Outlines  of  Phrenology.  ' 

III.  Elementary  principles  of  Education. 

OTHER  WORKS 

PUBLISHED    BY  THE    SAME     AUTHOR  IN    ENGLISH. 

I.  Anatomy  of  the  brain,  with  eleven  plates, 
8vo.     14s. 

II.  Appendix  to  the  Anatomy  of  the  brain, 
with  seven  lithographic  plates.    3s. 

III.  Observations  on  Insanity.      LOs. 

IV.  Phrenology  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  physiognomy.  Part  I.  Characters, 
with  34  lithogra})hic  plates.  Royal  8vo.     22s. 

5.  Art.  of  the  For.  Quart.  Review  on  phre- 
nology, with  notes.    Is.  6d. 


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